just-war doctrine 165spiritual realm (a mixture of the City of Man and the
City of God), and Christians are both animals and
saints. Human and divine must work together for JUS-
TICEto survive; the ruler must conform to godly prin-
ciples and CANON LAW. Government (as John CALVIN
later described it) is a combination of worldly and
spiritual concerns, and rulership is a kind of divine
ministry, accountable to God. Evil tyrants will be dealt
with most severely by the Lord. In his book, Policrati-
cus(1156–59), John of Salisbury describes many his-
torical examples of bad rulers being punished by God
and destroyed for their iniquity and unfaithfulness.
These examples include many instances of unjust
rulers being murdered, but John does not advocate
violent revolution or tyrannicide; rather, the godly citi-
zenry “resists” an evil prince through suffering, prayer,
and patience. John’s advice is a warning to weak or
wicked princes, that they cannot enjoy God’s peace,
safety, and blessings unless they repent and return to
just, godly governance.
John of Salisbury drew upon the Christian classics
and ancient Greek and Roman philosophy and law
(especially CICERO). His emphasis on human reason as
a source of moral knowledge reflects this CLASSICAL
education. Trained in France, he returned to serve
Archbishop Thomas BECKET in England, ending his
career as bishop of Chartres. Traveling extensively in
France and Italy, John of Salisbury was acquainted
with the great scholars of his time and observed per-
sonally the drift of power to the papacy through
increased appeals to the Roman curia.
The ideal polity provides a balance between mate-
rial and spiritual, worldly, and Christian, and a ruler
has the responsibility (as a blending of natural and
divine) to maintain that balance. Church and state
should respect each other, neither invading the
purview of the other, for achievement of a healthy, bal-
anced state.
Further Readings
Chibnall, Margorie, trans. The Historia Pontificalis of John of Sal-
isbury. Edinburgh: Thomas Welson and Sons,1956.
Wilks, M., ed. “The World of John of Salisbury.” Studies in
Church History,subsidia 3. Oxford, Eng.: Blackwell Pub-
lishers, 1984.
just-war doctrine
In Western political thought, the ideals and values sur-
rounding the definition of when warfare is justified
and how it should be conducted in a just manner. This
includes what the just causes of war are, who has
AUTHORITYto determine appropriate responses to war,
and how warfare should be conducted to respect
morals and JUSTICE.
For example, in the MIDDLE AGES, the CATHOLIC
Church defined justified war as that in defense of one’s
nation or property when invaded; when it is initiated
by a valid political authority; when it is taken as a last
resort (after attempted peace negotiations, compro-
mise, etc.); when it is carried on in a proportional
manner (using only enough force to repel the invader
and restore justice, but not to exercise vengeance or
retribution); when its end or purpose is the restoration
of peace; and when it has a reasonable hope of success.
Other components of just-war doctrine include the
treatment of noncombatants or civilian populations. In
general, Medieval doctrine exempted women, children,
the aged and infirm, priests, peasants, pilgrims, towns-
people, and all who did not bear weapons from the
attack of military force. This confined warfare to mili-
tary personnel and limited the ravages of war to those
directly engaged in combat. St. AUGUSTINE, St.
Ambrose, and Gratian developed these CHRISTIANdoc-
trines of limited war, drawing from earlier ROMAN LAW
and Catholic conceptions of godly love (caritas). St.
Thomas AQUINASfurther developed this church doc-
trine, which influenced Medieval knights’ notions of
honor and chivalry.
Prior to the Christian Middle Ages, warfare was
much more brutal and extensive. The Hebraic tradi-
tion of genocide of opponents of ancient Israel as
detailed in the Jewish Bible, and early Greek and
Roman imperial slaughter of innocents illustrates the
restraining influence of Christianity on human war-
fare. The MODERNsecular theorists SUAREZand GROTIUS
built on the Catholic just-war doctrine, without its
religious foundations. Twentieth-century war returned
to the barbaric practices of pagan warfare with mass
genocide by NAZIGermany and civilian destruction by
U.S. nuclear attacks on Japan. Despite numerous
treaties and institutions of international law, warfare in
the 19th and 20th centuries reached new levels of cru-
elty and mass destruction.Further Readings
Johnson, James Turner. Just War Tradition and the Restraint of
War: A Moral and Historical Inquiry.Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1981.
Ramsey, Paul. The Just War: Force and Political Responsibility.
New York: Scribners, 1968.