(exempting public school students from saluting the
flag and reciting the Pledge of Allegiance).
Further Reading
Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. The New World... .New
York: Watchtower, ca. 1942.
John Birch Society
An ultra-CONSERVATIVE, far RIGHT-wing, American polit-
ical group noted for its fervent anti-COMMUNISM.
Founded in 1959 by Robert Welch, a Massachusetts
businessman, the society is named after a BAPTISTmis-
sionary who was killed by the Communist Chinese in
- The John Birch Society advanced strongly anti-
LIBERAL policies through its publications The New
American magazine and The Blue Book, as well as
members who served in the U.S. government. It
expressed an extremely antistatist and conspiratorial
view of politics, accusing presidents Franklin ROO-
SEVELT, Harry Truman, and Dwight Eisenhower of
being sympathetic to communism, identifying the
United Nations as a tool of the Soviet and Chinese
Communist governments. Committed to “God, family,
country, and strong moral principles,” the John Birch
Society, like some of the CHRISTIAN RIGHT, advocated
restoration of prayer in public schools, U.S. boycotting
of UNICEF, opposition to civil rights legislation and
liberal Supreme Court rulings, and cutting the U.S.
welfare system. Taking an apocalyptic view of history,
Welch saw the imminent takeover of the United States
and the world by communists through liberal educa-
tors and “communist sympathizers” in the national
government. Although a small fringe group (100,000
members), it exerted influence on conservative parties,
organizations, and politicians.
Further Readings
Epstein, Benjamin R., and Foster, Arnold. Report on the John
Birch Society.New York: Random House, 1966.
Grove, Gene. Inside the John Birch Society.New York: Gold
Medal Books, 1961.
John of Paris (1250–1304) French political and
ecclesiastical philosopher
Of great influence on MODERN LIBERAL, SOCIAL-CONTRACT
political theory (especially that of John LOCKE) and
separation of CHURCH AND STATEideas, John’s philoso-
phy grew out of a unique conception of PROPERTY. Con-
trary to much MEDIEVALEuropean thought, he viewed
private material possessions as existing in nature prior
to temporal (state) and ecclesiastical (church) institu-
tions. This NATURAL RIGHTto property derived from
God’s granting people physical power (labor) and
needs, as well as the common store of nature. Mixing
one’s work with divine creation produces individually
held property. This LABOR THEORY OF VALUE, later
adapted by Locke, RICARDO, and Karl MARX, makes eco-
nomic activity rather than secular or religious AUTHOR-
ITYthe basis of privately held wealth. Governments
and churches should respect and protect such industry
and material prosperity. The corporate structure of the
(CATHOLIC) church may hold land and property with
papal control over its dispensation and stewardship.
The just ruler serves the common good of his or her
subjects, and states can be overthrown if that trust is
violated (compare to Locke’s “right to revolution”).
Even a pope can be displaced, in John’s view, by a sov-
ereign council of the whole church. These Modern
REPUBLICANideas are later developed by the Protestant
REFORMATION.
Much like Martin LUTHER200 years later, John of
Paris conceives of the separation of the spiritual and
temporal powers, church and state, with the secular
government enjoying autonomous SOVEREIGNTY over
the realm’s material concerns (economics, education,
military, etc.). The church occupies a separate but
related sphere of religion and morals but without coer-
cive authority over politics.
John of Paris was a member of the Dominican reli-
gious order and contributed (in his book, De Potestate
regia et papali) to the discussion between King
Philippe of France and Pope Boniface VIII over their
respective rights and powers.Further Reading
John of Paris. On Royal and Papal Power,J. A. Watt, transl.
Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1971.John of Salisbury (1115–1180) Medieval En-
glish political philosopher and cleric
A classic representative of CHRISTIANpolitical thought
of the MIDDLE AGES, John of Salisbury provided the
famous analogy of the state to a body (the king as
head, church as heart and soul, peasants as hands and
feet, etc.). He related CHURCH AND STATEin a typical
Augustinian way: Society is both a natural entity and a164 John Birch Society