ophy. Those most directly influenced include W. V. O.
Quine, Hilary Putnam, and Richard Rorty.
Further Readings
Hauser, N., and Kloesel, C. The Essential Peirce.Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1992.
James, W. Pragmatism.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1981.
prayer in school
As a political issue in the United States, prayer in pub-
lic (government) schools reflects the tensions of
CHURCH AND STATErelations in the United States.
In 1962, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the
case of Engel v. Vitale that in New York public
schools, collective prayer led by a schoolteacher
or an official violated the religious-liberty clause
of the FIRST AMENDMENT of the U.S. CONSTITUTION.
That amendment states, in part, that “Congress shall
make no law respecting an establishment of religion
.. .” The Supreme Court held that prayers led by
state officials in a public building during regular
school hours, in effect, “established” or supported
a certain religion or church, violating freedom of
religion.
EVANGELICAL CHRISTIANS(especially the CONSERVATIVE
CHRISTIAN RIGHT) have resisted this ban on prayer in
public schools, favoring a teacher-led Christian prayer.
Attempts have been made (as those by the former
MORAL MAJORITY) to pass a constitutional amendment
allowing such prayer in public schools, but they have
not succeeded. REPUBLICAN president Ronald REAGAN
advocated such an amendment.
The conservative and FUNDAMENTALIST Christians
who resist the ban on school prayer claim that the
absence of such religious observances has caused
moral decline in the United States and its schools and
has contributed to school violence, sexual promiscuity,
and a lack of discipline.
Although not altering the basic decision in Engel v.
Vitale, the U.S. Supreme Court in recent years has
modified the absolute prohibition on school prayer by
allowing student-led religious groups to use school
facilities for prayer before and after regular school
hours and at school events outside the public school
building. Of course, individual silent student prayer
has not been banned by the Supreme Court, especially
before and during tests.
Presbyterian
A MODERNform of church government (or “polity”)
that contrasts with the CATHOLIC HIERARCHY of priest,
bishops, and the pope. Associated with the 16th-cen-
tury Protestant REFORMATION, especially the churches
led by John CALVIN, Presbyterian church governance
establishes a REPUBLICANsystem of rule in the CHRISTIAN
church. Rather than church leaders chosen from above
(pope or archbishop) for life, Presbyterians elect
church leaders (presbyters, elders, deacons) from
below (congregation) for limited terms. This DEMO-
CRATICsystem of church governance grows out of the
Protestant view of “the priesthood of all believers.” It
influenced not only church polity in England, Scot-
land, Switzerland, and Holland, but also state repre-
sentative democracy (especially in the United States).
The U.S. CONSTITUTION, with its system of elected gov-
ernment representatives, rotation of office, CHECKS AND
BALANCES, and term limits, essentially replicates the
Presbyterian polity. In the United States, Presbyterian
churches are ruled by a hierarchical series of councils,
beginning with the local church “session,” regional
“synods,” and a national “general assembly.” This
model of government claims to be historical and apos-
tolic, tracing its origins to the early church and the
conciliar movement.
Historically, Presbyterianism accompanies Republi-
can political movements (English PURITANS under
Oliver CROMWELL, American Puritans in New England,
HUGUENOTS in France) against existing monarchies
(kings and popes).press, free
Freedom of the press means that individuals can
publish their writings without legal or political
restrictions or censorship. The early classic expres-
sion for publishing liberty occurs in John MILTON’s
book Areopagitica(1644), which argued against Eng-
lish laws for licensing books. Milton attacked this
legal requirement to obtain a government license
before one could publish material as restrictive of
new ideas and preventing healthy criticism of the
STATE. This idea of a free press advancing knowledge
and exposing public corruption formed the basis for
American press freedom. In the Virginia Declaration
of Rights and the U.S. CONSTITUTION(FIRST AMEND-
MENT) laws abridging the freedom of press are prohib-
ited. Only publication of national or military secrets240 prayer in school