(which would endanger national security) is pun-
ished by law. Civil law courts can treat cases of per-
sonal injury by libelous publications (knowingly
publishing false statements that harm a person’s repu-
tation or professional standing), but the U.S.
Supreme Court gives wide latitude to the free press in
regards to written attacks on public figures (politi-
cians, celebrities) as necessary to DEMOCRATICdiscus-
sion and government. This followed the disastrous
effects of the Alien and Sedition Acts under the presi-
dential administration of John ADAMS(1797– 1801),
which legally punished newspapers that criticized the
government. The fear caused by this state censorship
and the prospect of a TYRANNY, helped Adams’s poli-
tical opponents (Thomas JEFFERSONand James MADI-
SON) to win the national elections in 1800. Since
then, public repression of the free press has only
taken informal means.
John Stuart MILL gives the classic MODERNargu-
ments for freedom of the press in his essay On Liberty.
Mill argues that even unpopular or obnoxious ideas
should be freely expressed because (1) they may turn
out to be true, or (2) even if they are wrong, their
refutation by the correct views will strengthen the
truth.
Contemporary communications technology (such
as the Internet) has raised new questions of the free-
dom of the press. The increase of obscene and porno-
graphic publications, causing addiction and crime,
have raised issues of state restrictions on those publi-
cations. In general, the U.S. Supreme Court has pro-
tected the freedom of such obscene publications but
has regulated them to prevent them from infecting
children (minors). Several religious and CONSERVATIVE
nations (ISLAMICor CATHOLIC) restrict the publication
of pornographic materials as corruptive of morals.
Because restrictions on freedom of the press are
associated with closed tyrannical states (as NAZIGer-
many), most democratic countries are moving toward
more publication liberty.
Price, Richard (1723–17 91) British moral and
political philosopher
As a RADICAL DEMOCRATand a Unitarian, Price criti-
cized Edmund BURKE’s CONSERVATIVE politics in his
book Discourse on the Love of Our Country(1789). He,
like Thomas PAINE, was critical of the British MO-
NARCHYand was in favor of the French and American
revolutions. His ethics resembled those of Immanuel
KANT, and his Unitarian religion that of Joseph
PRIESTLY.Priestley, Joseph (1733–1804) British scientist,
theologian, and political philosopher
Trained as a PRESBYTERIANminister, Priestley left the
church after denying the divinity of Christ and
embraced Unitarian beliefs. He was considered a polit-
ical RADICALfor his attacks on the British system of
government (MONARCHY and ARISTOCRACY) and his
endorsement of the French and American revolutions.
His Essay on the First Principles of Government(1768)
developed the earliest UTILITARIANphilosophy of JUSTICE
as “the greatest good for the greatest number” (later
developed by Jeremy BENTHAM). He was critical of
Edmund BURKE’s CONSERVATIVE theory, opposed the
British Empire, and attacked religious orthodoxy. His
radical ideas enraged public opinion, and after an
angry mob burned down his house in England, he
moved to Pennsylvania. He was friends with Thomas
JEFFERSON.
Priestley’s main successes came in his scientific
investigations, where he made original discoveries
in the areas of electricity and oxygen. A controver-
sial character, he carried on fierce debates on politics,
religion, economics, and chemistry. His deism was tol-
erated in William PENN’s colony, but Priestley’s anti-
CHRISTIANideology made him suspect in EVANGELICAL
America.privacy
Primarily a MODERN, Western (American, British, and
European) concept, privacy refers to the individual
human being’s autonomy, separateness, and inviolate
RIGHTS. This includes LIBERTYof personal action and
PROPERTYownership and lifestyle and freedom from
disturbance by unwanted noise, smells, sights, or
other interferences. The emphasis on INDIVIDUALISM
and biological autonomy make privacy as a social
issue that is unknown in more collectivist cultures
(ISLAMIC, Chinese, African, etc.), so privacy as a social
category tends to arise with CAPITALISM, DEMOCRACY,
and LIBERALISM.
In U.S. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, privacy has been iden-
tified as a right that justifies the legal use of birth con-privacy 241