sented republican government as the appropriate
CHURCH-AND-STATEstructure for the Protestant “priest-
hood of all believers.” John LOCKEportrayed Modern
republics in terms of a SOCIAL CONTRACTof all individ-
uals, delegating limited power to the state. James HAR-
RINGTONapplied classical republicanism to England
through the virtuous yeoman farmer, the country gen-
try ruling England rather than the corrupt monarchy
and administration in London. This portrayal of
agrarian culture as naturally more virtuous and repub-
lican than city dwellers continues in the American
version of republicanism (in Thomas JEFFERSON).
French liberalism (as in Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAU) pres-
ents a more COMMUNITARIANrepublicanism, explaining
the TOTALITARIANqualities of the French Revolution of
1789.
British liberalism lends itself to a more legalistic,
mechanical republic in which CONSTITUTIONAL struc-
tures of CHECKS AND BALANCES, periodic elections, indi-
vidual rights, and divided power ensures protection
against concentrated power, tyranny, and oppression.
James MADISON constructed the U.S. Constitution to
prevent any person or group from gaining all power in
the state. Thus, the mechanics of the state protect re-
publican values, even if the citizens are not all virtuous.
PURITANEngland, under Oliver CROMWELL, and Puri-
tan America, under John WINTHROP, argued that a
Christian commonwealth could embody the virtues of
moral government and moral citizens.
The popularity of this republican ideal led it to be
adopted as a title of some states that were not demo-
cratic, such as COMMUNISTChina (the People’s “Repub-
lic” of China); the SOVIET UNION (Union of Soviet
Socialist “Republics”); Communist Eastern Germany
(the Democratic “Republic” of Germany); and North
Korea (the Democratic “Republic” of Korea). This use
of the term republicby governments that were dictato-
rial led to confusion in those countries over what con-
stituted republicanism.
Contemporary studies of republican government
tend to concentrate on the structures and procedures
of the state and the insurance of individual NATURAL
RIGHTS, popular sovereignty, and economic liberty.
Further Readings
Pocock, J. G. A. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political
Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition.Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975.
Tocqueville, A. de. Democracy in America,G. Lawrence, transl.,
J. P. Mayer and M. Lerner, eds. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor
Books, 1968.
Republican Party
One of the two major political parties in the United
States of America, the other being the DEMOCRATIC
PARTY. In terms of political thought or IDEOLOGY, the
U.S. Republican Party tends to be more CONSERVATIVE,
favoring business, free-enterprise, CAPITALISM, limited
federal government, lower taxes, and reduced WELFARE-
STATEsocial programs. This RIGHT-WINGpolitical stance
can be traced back to the FEDERALISTParty of early
America and the Whig Party of the early 1800s.
Historically, the Republican Party dates from 1854,
its first president being Abraham LINCOLN(elected in
1860). Lincoln’s presidency was dominated by the
American Civil War and the ABOLITIONof black slavery.
Through most of its history the Republican Party has
advanced business interests and identified U.S. pros-
perity and FREEDOMwith unrestricted capitalist eco-
nomics, low taxes, tariffs to protect U.S. industry, and
LAISSEZ-FAIRE government policies. Republican presi-
dents Calvin Coolidge (1924–28), Herbert Hoover
(1928–32), Dwight Eisenhower (1952–60), Richard
NIXON(1968–74), and Ronald REAGAN(1980–88) all
espoused these conservative, probusiness ideals.
Since the 1960s, the Republican Party has also rep-
resented conservative moral values (“family values,”
CHRISTIANreligious ethics, antiCOMMUNISM); the Demo-
cratic Party has been more PROGRESSIVEin its moral
stance (FEMINISM, HOMOSEXUAL rights, pro-ABORTION
rights, etc.). Thus, the Republican Party has endorsed
the CHRISTIAN RIGHT’s agenda against abortion, pornog-
raphy, gay rights, and HUMANISM. This has led to the
Republican Party as a symbol of traditional values or
what James Hunter in his book, Culture Wars,calls
“orthodox” morality. Consequently, the Republican
Party tends to receive support from EVANGELICALChris-
tians, conservative CATHOLIC, traditional women.
As U.S. political parties seek to attract a majority of
voters, each tries to appear MODERATE in its policy
stances, but the Republican Party remains more con-
servative, probusiness, and traditional in moral values.revolution
A sudden, often violent, changing of government,
rulers, and often social, cultural, economic, and reli-
gious systems in a country. Example of major political
revolutions include the English Glorious Revolution of
1688, the American Revolution of 1776, the French
Revolution of 1789, the Russian (COMMUNIST) Revolu-258 Republican Party