ished the religious/political rule of the Islamic ca-
liphate and instituted Western standards of LAW, eco-
nomics, and education. French, German, and Swiss
models were employed. Atatürk’s reforms in Turkey,
collectively known as Kemalism, constituted the
modernization of a traditional Islamic state. Kemalist
political philosophy consists of six principles: (1)
republicanism; (2) nationalism; (3) populism; (4) sta-
tism; (5) secularism; and (6) reformism. Republican-
ism implies a Western, parliamentary system of
government (with regular elections, RIGHTS that are
CONSTITUTIONAL, and multiple political parties).
Nationalism means a country independent of foreign
domination and distinct in history, geography, and cul-
ture. Populism means a DEMOCRATICculture and self-
government. Statism refers to the mixed economy of
Turkey, allowing private PROPERTY and entrepreneur-
ship but with some state industries and public regula-
tion of economics for the common good. Secularism
means the formal, legal separation of CHURCH AND
STATE, ending the state domination of Islamic clerics,
and FREEDOMof individual conscience in matters of
faith and religion. Turkey is one of a few Islamic coun-
tries that provides constitutionally guaranteed freedom
of religion. The individual in Turkey is allowed to
investigate and believe any religion one chooses, with-
out civil penalty or social punishment. This rests on
the view that only freely chosen, informed religious
belief is pleasing to God. Reformism is the series of
radical social reforms that Atatürk instituted to trans-
form Turkey from a MEDIEVAL, Middle Eastern monar-
chy into a modern Western civilization. Turks embrace
Western science and progress, including equal rights
for women, the European legal system, secular public
education, the Latin (rather than Arabic) alphabet, the
Western calendar, and European dress styles.
Together, Atatürk’s reforms transformed a weak,
isolated, impoverished country into a strong, prosper-
ous, advanced nation that is integrated into the West-
ern world.
Although sometimes criticized for his methods,
Atatürk is recognized internationally as a great politi-
cal leader and thinker who transformed an important
part of the 20th-century world. He is revered in
Turkey as the nation’s Founding Father and an inspi-
ration to contemporary Turkish leaders. Although his
nation is still developing to achieve fully the goals
of his 1930s reforms, it has advanced impressively.
Perhaps because of Atatürk’s military and political
background, the army in Turkey enjoys an unusual
respect and is seen as the preserver of Atatürk’s re-
public and vision. As a combination soldier, states-
man, ruler, and reformer, Atatürk is unrivaled in the
twentieth century.Further Readings
Kazancigil, Ali and Ozbudun, Ergin, eds. Atatürk, Founder of a
Modern State. Hamden, Conn.: Archer Books, 1981.
Kinross, Patrick Balfour, Baron. Atatürk, the Rebirth of a Nation.
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995, 1964.
Sheldon, G. W. Jefferson and Atatürk.New York: Peter Lang,
2000.
Volkan, Vamik D. The Immortal Atatürk: A Psychobiography.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1984.Augustine, St. (354–430) Christian theologian,
political thinker, and bishop
Born in Northern Africa (what is now Algeria), which
was largely CHRISTIANat that time, Augustine’s father
was a lawyer, his mother (St. Monica) a Christian. He
received a classical education in Greek philosophy,
ROMAN LAW, rhetoric, and literature with the intent of
becoming a lawyer. Attracted by philosophy, he began
a long journey for truth, eventually becoming a profes-
sor in Rome. There he met St. Ambrose, bishop of
Milan, and was converted to Christianity under his
inspiring preaching. In 391, he was seized by a church
crowd after delivering a talk and was ordained as a
priest on the spot. Four years later, he was made
bishop of Hippo, North Africa.
Augustine is probably the most influential thinker
in the Western Christian church, both CATHOLICand
Protestant. This “Augustinian” Christianity remains
the basis of most Catholic and Reformed theology. He
is revered by both St. Thomas AQUINAS and John
CALVIN. Augustine wrote an enormous amount of reli-
gious literature, sermons, letters, and books, the most
famous of which are his Confessionsand The City of
God.The latter contains his political philosophy, the
first systematic Christian political theory in the West.
Augustine lived during the end of the Roman Empire
(the destruction of Rome by barbarians led by Alaric
the Goth in 410). Many Romans blamed the fall of
their empire to the rise of Christianity and decline of
pagan Roman religions. In his book The City of God,
Augustine argued that it was actually the sins of those
pagan beliefs that led to the moral decay and social
and military weakness of the Roman Empire. In the
process of defending the faith, St. Augustine developed
a unique Christian political thought.22 Augustine, St.