Freud’s The Future of Illusionis pub-
lished.
Heidegger publishes Being and Time.1929 Russian revolutionary leader Leon Trot-
sky exiled from the Soviet Union.
1930 Max Horkheimer becomes director at
the Institute for Social Research.
Freud’s Civilization and its Discontents is
translated.
Gandhi leads the famous 200-mile
march to the sea.
Trotsky publishes The Permanent Revo-
lution.
1932 Niebuhr’s Moral Man and Immoral Soci-
etypublished.
1933 Hitler and the Nazi Party come to
power in Germany.
Heidegger is appointed rector of the
University of Freiburg by the Nazi gov-
ernment.
The Institute of Social Research moves
to the U.S. to escape the Nazis; many
German-Jewish scholars are forced to
flee Germany.
1934 Mao Tse-tung and the Chinese Red
Army embark on the Long March.
1936 John Maynard Keynes’s The General
Theory of Employment, Interest and
Moneyis printed.
1937 Bukharin is put on trial and executed
by the Soviet Union.
1938 Benedetto Croce publishes History as
the Story of Liberty.
1940 Leon Trotsky assassinated.
1942 Albert Camus publishes The Stranger
and The Myth of Sisyphus.
Joseph Schumpeter’s Capitalism, Social-
ism and Democracypublished.
1943 Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness
is published.
1944 Friedrich von Hayek publishes The
Road to Serfdom.
1945 Dietrich Bonhoeffer executed for his
role in a plot to assassinate Hitler.
Karl Popper’s The Open Society and Its
Enemiespublished.
1947 India becomes an independent nation.
Horkheimer publishes Eclipse of Reason
and Dialectics of Enlightenment (with
Theodor Adorno).
1948 Ghandi is assassinated by a Hindu radi-
cal.
1949 Mao becomes chairman of the newly
formed People’s Republic of China.
Chinese Communist government con-
demns Confucianism and religions.
Martin Buber publishes Paths in Utopia.
Simone de Beauvoir publishes The Sec-
ond Sex.
1950 The beginnings of the Red Scare and
McCarthyism in the U.S.
1951 Hannah Arendt publishes The Origins of
Totalitarianism.
1953 The Institute for Social Research moves
back to Germany.
1954 The U.S. Supreme Court, in Brown v.
Board of Education, declares segregation
of schools to be unconstitutional.
Frantz Fanon publishes The Wretched of
the Earth.
1957 Sir Isaiah Berlin writes “Two Concepts
of Liberty.”
1958 Arendt publishes The Human Condition.
Mao begins social programs in China
known as the “Great Leap Forward.”
1959 Ernst Bloch publishes The Principle of
Hope.
John Birch Society is founded.
1961 Michel Foucault publishes Madness and
Civilization.
1962 U.S. Supreme Court rules in Engel v.
Vitale that school prayer violates the
First Amendment.Chronology 325