the rulers and more on the system of government,
codes, regulations, and laws.
Taoist political theory rests on the view that the
world is vain and absurd, incapable of order or good-
ness, and plagued by foolishness and dysfunction. The
wise person, therefore, cultivates a detachment from
the world and achieves an otherworldly calm and
peace. Because the world and politics are ridiculous
and useless, the best ruler is one who does not take it
too seriously but admires rural simplicity and detach-
ment, only ruling out of a sense of duty and resigna-
tion.
Another strain of Chinese political thought empha-
sizes military discipline and the need for aggressive
warfare. Mo Tzu (470–391 B.C.) regarded Confucian
ceremony and ancestor worship as foolish and exclu-
sive. His military government regarded the common
people as equal and fighting as the highest activity.
This part of Chinese ideology continues throughout its
history in violent nationalist warfare.
Throughout Chinese history, these philosophical
perspectives are interwoven and blended, resulting in
policy often confusing to Westerners. High-minded
ETHICS combined with brutal authoritarian warfare
seems inconsistent to many Western minds, but they
reflect the blending of ancient Chinese traditions.
Twentieth-century adoptions of LIBERAL DEMOCRACY,
MARXISM, communism, and capitalism (for example, in
MAO TSE-TUNG) reflect these ancient Chinese schools of
thought.
The communist revolution in 1949 blended MARX-
IST–LENINISTtheories of economic class struggle and
capitalist IMPERIALISMwith traditional Chinese political
philosophy and nationalist sentiments. Its leader Mao
Tse-Tung employed a communist view of China’s
economic problems (capitalist exploitation and impe-
rialism from European powers) with a nationalist
defense against Japanese invaders drawing on Chinese
peasant masses. Hence, in latter 20th-century political
thought, China’s dominant ideology is summarized as
“Marxist–Leninist–Mao Tse-tung Thought.” In it,
unlike orthodox (Stalinist) Marxism (which saw peas-
ants as economically backward and politically reac-
tionary), Chinese communist theory emphasized the
revolutionary SOCIALIST“masses” (including industrial
workers or “proletariat” and agrarian peasants) be-
cause the vast majority of people in China were poor
rural farmers.
Mao’s communism also drew on traditional Confu-
cian ideas through his emphasis on “correct thinking
or consciousness” and “self-criticism” as the basis of
POLITICAL CORRECTNESSand social progress. His “let a
hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools of thought
contend” during the cultural revolution of the late
1950s reflects political thought of the Chou dynasty
(700 B.C.). Maoism’s warning that even a communist
revolution could be ruined by an oppressive BUREAU-
CRATICstate (as in the Soviet Union) derives from tra-
ditional Eastern wisdom. The Chinese government’s
reaction to his anarchic cultural revolution, in favor of
order, respect for authority, and peace, reflects tradi-
tional Chinese legalistic philosophy.Further Reading
Ames, R. T. The Art of Rulership.Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1983.Christian/Christianity
The political thought of the historical Christian
Church and Christian people. Historically, this means
the major thinkers of the CATHOLIC(see St. AUGUSTINE
and St. Thomas AQUINAS), Protestant (see John CALVIN
and Martin LUTHER), and Eastern Orthodox (see BYZAN-
TINE) churches. Each group of Christians has formu-
lated various ideas on the proper view of politics and
religion, CHURCH AND STATE, the role of the Christian in
the world, JUST-WAR DOCTRINE, and so on. Generally,
Roman Catholic political thought has viewed the
church as having authority over the state. Generally,
Protestant (e.g., BAPTIST) thought has allowed state
control over the church in worldly matters or the for-
mal “separation” of church and state. Eastern Ortho-
dox Christian thought (e.g., Greek Orthodox, Russian
Orthodox churches) has tended to combine church
and state authority sometimes with religious officials
ruling the state or, in Russia, declaring the secular king
(czar) “Christ on Earth.”
In contemporary American politics, Christian polit-
ical thought takes many forms. The LIBERAL“mainline”
churches (Episcopal, Presbyterian, United Church of
Christ, Lutheran) tend to be on the political LEFT,
advocating federal government welfare programs,
women’s rights, CIVIL RIGHTS, gay and lesbian rights,
and ABORTIONrights. The Catholic Church tends to be
liberal on economic policy (aid to the poor, etc.) but
CONSERVATIVE on social policy (antiabortion, antidi-
vorce, anti-HOMOSEXUALITY). The EVANGELICALProtes-
tant churches (Baptist, charismatic) tend to be
conservative on both economic and moral issues.Christian/Christianity 55