82 charles d. orzech and henrik h. sørensen
Some texts are ambivalent about the difference between altar and
mandala. Sometimes the altar is described as a mandala and sometimes
the mandala is the altar. However, we must imagine the mandala as
having been placed on a sort of built-up platform or area raised from
the ground, serving as the central focus for a given rite. Around the
three-dimensional mandalas were often erected a cordon made of rope
or later five-colored threads—one color for each Buddha family in the
case of the more developed esoteric Buddhism propagated in the Tang
court from the mid-eighth century onward. The cordon functioned as
a fence meant to keep out unwanted persons and demonic forces from
the inner ritual space. This enclosure was empowered by the officiating
monk through the use of mantras or spells.
Esoteric Buddhist literature from the seventh century contains
detailed descriptions of how to build the altar on which the mandala
is to be placed.^25 In India it was customary to build altars on a cleared
space and cover them with cow dung and a final layer of whitewash.
Even though this practice is often mentioned in the Chinese transla-
tions of esoteric Buddhist scriptures, it is uncertain whether this was
followed in actual practice.^26 Probably the Chinese practitioners did
not use manure for their altars, but special kinds of clay painted with
colours.
Although the type of mandalas used in esoteric Buddhism are nor-
mally geometrical arrangements of circular or square ground plans
sub-divided into sections, all circular arrangements, even in the con-
text of esoteric Buddhism should not automatically be considered
“mandalas.” In order for a given diagram of the type described above
to qualify as a mandala it needs a pre-defined ritual context delineat-
ing its function as such (including instructions for liturgy, iconogra-
phy and offerings to be used). Moreover, in the majority of cases there
are also scriptural or orally transmitted sources available. These are
necessary for the correct setting up of most mandalas, whether they be
mere diagrams, paintings or three-dimensional structures.
(^25) For ritual metaphors relating altars and other types of construction, see Payne
“From Vedic India to Buddhist Japan: Continuities and Discontinuities in Esoteric
Ritual,” in this volume. 26
For an example, see the description of the preparation of an altar for the expul-
sion of demons and illness in Manicintana’s Scripture of the Amoghapāśadhāraṇī,
Soverign Lord of Spells (Bukongjuansuo tuoluoni zizaiwang zhou jing
T. 1097.20:426c22–26).