. esoteric buddhism and monastic institutions 291
that while its secular counterpart was for a mundane sovereign, this
subterranean reliquary crypt was reserved for the Dharma King, the
Buddha—or, more accurately, his relics.
Evidence also indicates, at least as construed by some scholars, the
intriguing possibility that it was, as a whole, designed as an enormous
mandala or mandala complex, in which a series of esoteric rituals were
performed before it was sealed and the relics were enshrined (Han
Jinke 1995, 133–135; Wu and Han, 1998).^10 The esoteric structure and
nature of the whole subterranean crypt are corroborated by the hun-
dreds of utensils and artifacts excavated there—particularly the reli-
quary caskets for the four relics with various images carved on their
surfaces—as well as by the religious backgrounds of the three major
architects of this reliquary palace. These included two major represen-
tatives of the Daxingshansi and Qinglongsi traditions, respectively: Zhi-
huilun (also Borezhuojia ; Prajñācakra; ?–875/876),
probably a third-generation disciple of Bukong,^11 and Yizhen
(active 790–860).^12 The third was, quite significantly, Haiyun, who left
us the most meticulous account of the two major esoteric traditions
of the Tang that were later elaborated into two competing traditions
in Japan, Shingon and Taimitsu.
The key role played by Zhihuilun in the Famensi relic veneration is
particularly noteworthy and telling. As a third-generation disciple of
Bukong (i.e., a disciple of Bukong’s disciple, probably Huiying ,
?–792+),^13 Zhihuilun was not only a major advocate of esoteric Bud-
dhism in the ninth century but also played a crucial role in transmit-
ting esoteric Buddhism to Japan. He served as mentor to both Enchin
(814–891) and Shūei (809–884), who traveled to Tang China
(^10) There are scholars who have different interpretations of the structure of this
“subterranean palace.”
(^11) This relationship between Zhihuilun and Bukong is suggested by Kōda 2002,
46–49.
(^12) Yizhen belonged to the cloister of Qinglongsi in which the consecration arena
was situated: the Dongta Cloister. Formerly a disciple of Huiguo, he also received
transmission from Haiyun’s teacher Yicao, who had been his fellow disciple (under
Huiguo).
(^13) That Zhihuilun was a third generation disciple of Bukong (that is, a disciple of
Bukong’s disciple) is asserted by Enchin in one of his memorials submitted to the
court, “Shō kōden Shingon Shikan ryōshū kanchō kanjō”
( BZ 28: 1311c). The master-disciple relationship between Huiying and Zhihuilun
is suggested by Kōda, 2002, 46–49.