. esoteric buddhism and monastic institutions 293
Buddha; the relic bones were flanked by items and icons belonging to
the monarchs and their loved ones, utensils so magnificent that they
can only be associated with those used by the royalty, and bundles of
hair from the heads of the emperor, his consorts, and other imperial
relatives.
The Famensi underground crypt was thus envisioned as a reversion
of (if not vengeance on) the paramount monarchist authority vis-à-
vis the law of the Dharma as symbolized by the institution of palace
chapels. Had it not been built underground and in miniature, com-
pared with the imperial palace complex, such a piece of architecture
so symbolic of the dominion of theological power over the secular
world would have been totally unimaginable in a society where the
sangha had never achieved independence from, let alone superiority
over, secular authority. At any rate, esoteric Buddhism’s conspicuous
position in these two supreme politico-religious symbols, both above
and beneath the ground, emphatically points to its unusual impor-
tance for contemporary monastic institutions.
Last, we should bear in mind that from the ninth century onward,
esoteric Buddhism was rarely paralleled by other Buddhist traditions
in transmitting Tang Buddhist institutions to other parts of East Asia,
where esoteric Buddhism steadily began to gain increasing popularity.
In view of verifiable evidence, Haiyun seems to be on firm ground
with his claim that more than ten thousand Buddhist practitioners
flocked to the Tang capitals from Korea, Japan, and some Southeast
Asian regions, such as Java, in pursuit of esoteric teachings and prac-
tices under the supervision of Bukong and his numerous first- and
second-generation disciples (Liangbu dafa xiangcheng shizi fufa ji, T.
2081.51:785b23–26).