. tibet and the continent 455
ters such as Padmasambhava.^9 Both the Bön and Nyingma traditions
developed during this period their best-known practice tradition, the
“Great Perfection” or Dzogchen (rdzogs chen), which, like the Kagyü
Mahāmudrā teachings, aim for the direct realization of the nature
of mind.^10
The Sakyas and the Mongols
The thirteenth century saw a major development in Central Asia, the
rise of the Mongols, which dramatically accelerated the spread of the
Tibetan Buddhist traditions in Central Asia. While Tibetan lamas had
already been active in the Tangut state of Xixia, under Mongol rule
Tibetan lamas would even more actively disseminate their traditions
outside of Tibet. In 1244 C.E., the Mongol ruler Kötan summoned
the leader of the Sakya school, Sakya Pandita (sa skya paṇḍi ta, 1182–
1251 C.E.) to his court. On behalf of the chieftains and lamas of Tibet,
Sakya Pandita submitted to the Mongols, and in turn was granted
authority over Tibet’s religious affairs. Sakya Pandita was accompa-
nied on this trip by his nephews, Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen (‘phags pa blo
gros rgyal mtshan, 1235–1280) and Chakna Dorjé (phyag na rdo rje,
1239–1267), who spent years living with the Mongols.
Sakya Pandita and his entourage evidently impressed the Mongols,
some of whom converted to Buddhism. During this time a number
of Tibetan Buddhist texts connected with the Sakya tradition were
translated into Uighur (see Kara and Zieme 1976). Sakya Pandita’s
nephew, Pakpa, would go on to serve as a preceptor in the court of
Khubilai Khan (1215–1294 C.E.). He evidently played a significant role
in the dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism among the Mongols and
in China. In fact, an extra-canonical collection of Chinese texts, alleg-
edly translated from Tibetan by Pakpa, has recently been republished
in Taiwan, and is contributing the contemporary spread of Tibetan
Buddhism in Han Chinese communities.^11
(^9) For an excellent introduction to the Nyingma tradition see Dudjom Rinpoche
- Regarding the Bön tradition, see Snellgrove 1967. Regarding the phenomenon
of treasure texts see Davidson 2002a, 210–243. 10
For an excellent introduction to the history of Nyingma Dzogchen teachings, see
Germano 1994. Regarding the Bön Dzogchen see Shardza Tashi Gyaltsen 2002. 11
This collection is entitled The Secret Collection of the Quintessential Path of the
Mahāyāna. This collection has been preserved in Taiwan, where it has
been published three times between 1962 and 1981. Regarding this work, see Beckwith