Evidence-Based Practice for Nurses

gatekeeper. This is a person who facilitates the entry of the researcher into the

particular group being studied. For example, if a Caucasian researcher wished

to study the culture of a particular tribe of Native Americans, the researcher

might first need to identify a person from that tribe who would invite the

researcher to be a participant observer because it is highly unlikely that the

researcher would gain access without assistance. The gatekeeper is generally a

person with some authority in the group.

When obtaining information from key informants, the researcher strives to

discover the emic perspective, or the informant’s perspective (i.e., the “inside”

scoop; Boyle, 1994). Conversely, the researcher has an etic, or outside, perspective.

In ethnography, discovering the emic perspective is essential. The researcher needs

to record and observe both what key informants say and what they do, looking

for consistencies or inconsistencies between the emic and etic perspectives.

Data Collection and Management

Researchers using ethnographic methods study people in their natural en-

vironments over long periods of time to gain a comprehensive view of the

culture (Leininger, 1995). There is direct personal involvement with the study

of participants over time, usually several months to years (Boyle, 1994). This

method takes prolonged engagement and patience.

Along with participant observation, the researcher conducts in-depth inter-

views with key informants. As with any method that uses interviews, the skill

of the researcher largely influences the quality and credibility of the results.

Interviews should begin with open-ended questions that allow the informant

to provide as much information as possible and that support the grand tour

question, or the major question that the researcher is trying to answer.

Spradley (1979) believed that the ethnographic interview should be like sharing

a friendly conversation. He identified three important elements to the interview:

(1) explicit purpose, (2) ethnographic explanations, and (3) ethnographic ques-

tions. First, the researcher must make the purpose of the interview perfectly

clear and gradually take the lead in directing the questions and conversations to

discover the knowledge of the informant. Throughout interviews the researcher

must also give repeated explanations to the informant about information that

needs to be obtained. Informants may need to be reminded to speak from their

own perspective and not “translate” for the researcher. Interviews are usually

conducted over weeks during numerous encounters so that the researcher

can gradually guide the informant toward providing relevant information.

Spradley listed more than 30 kinds of ethnographic questions that could be

used during an interview (see Table 9-2). Easygoing conversation should be

interspersed with questions that the researcher wishes to have answered.

KEY TERMS

gatekeeper: Person

who facilitates or

hinders entry of the

researcher into a

particular group or

setting

emic: The insider’s

or participant’s

perspective

etic: The outsider’s

perspective; the

perspective of the

researcher

238 CHAPTER 9 Qualitative Designs: Using Words to Provide Evidence