Monteverde : Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest

but also to Cattle Egrets, which can be poisoned by
consuming ticks on recently treated cows (J. J. Monge,
pers. comm.).

11.1.3. Opportunities for Improved
Sustainability

Policies that are critical to farm operations are those
that control prices, allocate credit and technical assis-
tance, set research agendas and interest rates, regulate
environmental quality, establish minimum wages, and
subsidize or tax agricultural inputs. Such policies can
encourage environmentally destructive or benign prac-
tices and can affect the availability of production tech-
nologies. The management practices described below
are amenable in varying degrees to policy interventions
on the part of national or local agencies.

Manure management. The beneficial effects of

manure on soil are well documented (Mott 1974,

Vicente-Chandler 1974, National Research Council

1989). Proper manure application increases organic

matter content and releases nutrients slowly so that

they are more likely to be taken up by plants rather

than being lost to leaching and becoming an envi-

ronmental problem. Many obstacles to mechanical

manure spreading exist in Monteverde. A manure

spreader and tractor are not affordable for most farm-

ers and cannot be used on steep slopes. Slurry sys-

tem installation is costly and is feasible only if pas-

tures are downhill from the barn. Manure composting

prior to spreading requires careful management to

prevent nutrient loss and contamination problems.

Manure management systems reduce but do not elimi-

nate the need for chemical fertilizers.

Fertilizer management. Leaching and weathering

in the tropics reduce fertility of soils in most high-

rainfall areas (Ter and Kang 1986). Soil tests on limed

and fertilized Monteverde pastures have revealed the

following: organic matter 10-12%; pH 5.6-6.0; phos-

phorus deficiency 70-90 kg/ha/yr; magnesium defi-

ciency, 45 kg/ha/yr; and potassium deficiency, 20-25

kg/ha/yr (Stuckey 1989). Fertilizer use is labor-

intensive; it is generally broadcast by hand. It requires

reliable local suppliers, affordable transport, and

management skills to avoid waste and optimize tim-

ing of applications, and is expensive. Alternatives

to fertilizing are generally inadequate for Monte-

verde dairies. For example, grass-legume mixtures

are difficult to establish and require nonnitrogen fer-

tilizers to flourish.

Many temperate zone proponents of sustainable

and organic agriculture argue that use of chemical

fertilizers is unsustainable, as nonrenewable re-

sources such as fossil fuel will be depleted and poorly

managed fertilizers can contaminate groundwater.

However, properly applied chemical fertilizers can

increase the vigor of pasture plants and reduce

compaction and erosion (Vicente-Chandler 1974).

Healthier pastures are less susceptible to diseases and

pests, which reduces or eliminates the need for pes-

ticides. Fertilizers increase yields, which potentially

reduces the amount of land needed for agriculture.

The U.S. National Research Council (1993) concluded

that fertilizer use is a sustainable management prac-

tice in the tropics.

Feed and mineral supplements. Most Monteverde

farmers feed their cows combinations of grain, min-

eral supplements, molasses, and urea. Use of supple-

mentary feeds is environmentally positive. A large

proportion of the minerals is recovered in manure and

urine. When these wastes are deposited on pastures

(as they are in a rotational grazing regime), a signifi-

cant source of nutrients is added (Mott 1974, De Geus

1977, Humphreys 1987), which reduces the need

for purchased fertilizers. Supplementary feeds and

minerals can also reduce pressure on the land base

(McDowell et al. 1986). The major disadvantage of

feed supplements is cost; they represent half the milk

production cost in the Monteverde uplands (McDowell

et al. 1986, Guzman Zamorra 1989). The need for

local suppliers and affordable transport are other ob-

stacles. Research should identify alternative feed

supplements that could reduce production costs.

Cut feeds. Cut feeds (tall grasses cut with a machete

and carried to cows) have been widely promoted for

dairy farmers in Costa Rica. They are used primarily

to increase forage availability during the dry season.

The two main types used in Monteverde are King

Grass (Pennisetum spp.) and Imperial (Axonopus

spp.; CATIE 1983). Some species provide excellent

erosion control. They can also be effective windbreaks

for row crops. Cut feeds can substantially reduce the

amount of land needed for pasture; 0.1 ha of cut feed

can supply all the dry matter and nearly all the pro-

tein for a producing dairy cow (CATIE 1983). In con-

trast, a typical upland pasture requires about 0.5 ha

per cow.

An environmental disadvantage to cut feeds is that

some types are difficult to eradicate once they become

established. Management can also be problematic.

Correct harvesting intervals are key; if harvested when

maximum volume is achieved, crude protein is re-

duced. Cut feeds are also labor intensive; farmers

spend several hours a day cutting, hauling, chop-

ping, and distributing forage. A growing number of

Monteverde farmers allow cows to graze the forage

396 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability