his logical argumentation but is a necessary component of these arguments and the soul’s
educational journey.
Socratic Method: The Contemporary Teaching Tool
Although widespread in contemporary pedagogy, there is no agreed upon definition of the
“Socratic method”or the conditions or context of when it should be used in an educational setting.^1
At minimum, the method is understood as a pedagogical style employing a teacher-led question-
and-answer format to foster student discussion and active learning; in the extreme, proponents
require adherence to a formal structure in which the teacher systematically directs students through
a series of steps that develop critical reasoning (often with expected learning outcomes). Propo-
nents of the Socratic method are found in all educational levels from early elementary classrooms to
doctoral tutorials. It is employed in virtually every discipline from the hard sciences and math-
ematics to the humanities, social sciences, and legal studies.
Introduced as a pedagogical approach by the German philosopher Leonard Nelson’s 1922
seminal lecture entitled“The Socratic Method,”it developed in response to two educational models
of the twentieth century. First, the Socratic method challenges the overreliance on passive learning
models, such as formal lecturing, and rote memorization of concepts and ideas. In contrast, by
emphasizing a“self-directed,”“learning-centered,”or“human centered”process, the method
engages students in active learning, because it requires them to“do [their] own thinking”or
“actively construct their own understanding.”^2 Second, the Socratic method counters the con-
tinuing preoccupation in higher education on training for vocational knowledge and marketplace
skills. It was particularly influential on the Great Books movement as a way to interrogate texts by
gaining deeper insight into the truth of philosophic questions. It continues to be championed as a
strength of humanities and liberal art programs, which employ it to develop critical thinking skills
and the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.^3
Because the approach to Socratic questioning is so broad, it is impossible to provide agreed upon
criteria for the practice, except that it necessarily involves conversation, dialog, or“talk”directed to
elicit understanding. Broadly speaking, the teacher should not tell students the answer, but function
as a neutral facilitator who guides students with a series of questions which challenge original
understandings and opinions.^4 Although the characteristics of the method are debated, many
scholars approach it systematically.
Boghossian, for example, argues that the method involves five stages: wonder (the posing of a
question); hypothesis (the student’s original understanding or opinion); cross-examination and
counterexamples (elenchus); acceptance or rejection of counterexamples to the hypothesis; and
action on outcomes.^5 Others focus on three stages:elenchus(here understood as an acknowl-
edgment of perplexity); mental midwifery (the activity of learning or“remembering”); tethering or
binding new knowledge to previous knowledge.^6 Others still focus on outlining expectations of the
participants: honesty in expressing convictions; articulation of ideas in clear, logical language;
willingness to work with and understand others; and critical evaluation of one’s own views.^7 Kreeft
argues that the method requires honesty on the part of participants, rejection of extreme positions
such as pure skepticism or dogmatism, and the overcoming of extreme attitudes, such as the fear of
reason.^8 From this perspective, the Socratic method is a systematic approach to discussion-based
learning intended to replace faulty thinking with deeper insight. It employs questioning for the sake
of rigorous and sound reasoning intended to seek clarity and transparency on any discussion topic.
What makes the method“Socratic”is not that discussion is expected to arrive at specific outcomes,
but that“all opinions should be advanced with reasons.”^9
Other perspectives, especially those which emphasize the“Socratic” origin of teaching,
understand the method not as a neutral tool to promote active learning, but emphasize the sig-
nificance of the student as a“moral agent.”^10 The use of the Socratic method can promote moral
10 Marlene K. Sokolon