pedagogy in two ways. First, the Socratic discussion can focus directly on moral questions that
require judgment of better or worse answers. This approach is promoted in the humanities and
social sciences which use course content to develop and practice this kind of critical thinking and
moral judgment.^11 In this case, the topic under Socratic discussion focuses on abstract moral
principles or ontological analysis. By asking abstract philosophic questions, such as“what is
justice,”students want“to win knowledge about their own inner experience and develop insights
into the truth concerning philosophical questions.”^12 Although Nelson rejected the idea that ethical
principles could be derived from observed facts, some teachers use the method to guide moral
judgment by using practical examples of moral conundrums. For example, in lessons intended to
develop adolescent character, children are asked to think through questions, such as whether they
should buy a stolen bicycle.^13 It is through thinking and talking about real-world examples that
children come to recognize and understand for themselves the difference between poor and better
moral choices.
Second the Socratic method is also promoted as a form of moral pedagogy even if the content of
discussion is not philosophic or ethical, because the method develops critical thinking skills
considered essential to living together in a political community. Consequently, regardless of the
topic of discussion or course content, Socratic questioning promotes“rational thinking, persist-
ence, and pattern recognition”; the method can lead to improved self-reflection, autonomous and
independent thinking, and an increased willingness to cooperate and work with others.^14 In the
group format, often called“Socratic Circles,”participants are expected to participate in open and
honest discussion and strive for consensus.^15 By employing the method, students gain“greater
clarity about what is and what is not in keeping with considered, thoughtful, and reasonable
conduct.”^16 The Socratic method is promoted because it provides a rich set of reasoning skills that
either directly or indirectly helps students engage in the moral perplexity of the world. This goal of
the method is not surprising. Nelson, for example, was extremely active in socialist politics and
viewed his seminal work on the Socratic method as a way to rationally train activists and enrich the
civic community.^17 From this perspective, the Socratic method is not simply a neutral pedagogical
tool used in educational settings, but because it develops“reasoning abilities requisite to living a
rational life,”the student is central to broader political goals of living well in just communities.^18
Thus, although the method is used broadly and in various contexts, goals of the Socratic method
appear threefold. First, it is a pedagogical method intended to help students think about and dis-
cover for themselves factual or evidence-based knowledge in any discipline. Second, the Socratic
method can directly ask students to engage in questions of moral and philosophic reasoning that
allow students to reject self-deceptive thinking in favor of deeper understandings. Third, the very
act of a question-and-answer format is argued to develop rational judgment required of any citizen
in a democratic regime. The Socratic method, thus, becomes an essential element of not only
understanding course material, but living well, and living with others in the political community.
Although some proponents of the method make use of vivid analogy or dismiss pure rationalism,
whether the method is simply aneutral teaching style or used to promote citizenship development, it
adopts reflective, and objective thinking, rational articulation of ideas in unambiguous language,
and the requirement that all opinions are advanced with reasoning. As Kreeft puts it:“reason is the
common master.”^19 The Socratic method in modern pedagogy emphasizes“confidence in reason”
as the means to promoting greater understanding of philosophic truths and civic harmony.^20
Socratic Method: Plato’s Dialogs
Although the contemporary understanding of the Socratic method varies from a simple question-
and-answer teaching style to a systematic technique directed toward engaging students in the search
for philosophic truth, it is a source of debate whether such practices reflect either the historical
Socrates or Socrates’characterization in extant dialogs, especially those by Plato. Contemporary
Poetic Questions in the Socratic Method 11