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various yogic practices (Cook-Cottone, 2015). Since ancient times, yoga has been evolving,
adapting to meet the needs of individuals with different cultures, traditions, and applications
(Cook-Cottone, 2015; Horton, 2012; Kraftsow, 1999; McCall, 2007; Simpkins & Simpkins,
2011; Strauss, 2005). The challenge lies in writing about yoga as an intervention for schools,
ensuring that it is being implemented in a way that honors the extensive history of yoga
practice, yoga culture, and mentorship and the philosophical foundations and ancient
texts (Cook-Cottone, 2015; McCall, 2007). Current manifestations and applications of yoga
are considerably different than early forms. It is believed that yoga has been practiced in
India for more than 40 centuries, before recorded history (Anderson & Sovik, 2000; Cook-
Cottone, 2015; Horton, 2012; Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010; Weintraub, 2004).
In its historical essence, yoga is a philosophy. It has been passed down and integrated by
many, across a wide range of applications. If you look, elements of yogic philosophy can be
found in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, therapy, self-improvement, coaching,
and even fitness (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010; Strauss,
2005). This is because yoga’s unique integration of focused concentration, deliberate body
positioning (i.e., asana), and control of the breath provides an enduring practical system
that is not limited to any particular philosophical or religious system (Cook-Cottone, 2015;
Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011).
Yoga scholars have identified several ancient texts that are the early foundations of
today’s yoga: the Vedas (i.e., Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva), Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita,
Vedanta, and Yoga Sutras (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010).
Horton (2012) describes the “Pashupati Seal,” a stone originating from the Indus Valley
civilization thought to date back 5,000 years. Horton’s (2012) report reviews several theories
as to its meaning and relevance to yoga (Horton, 2012): Is it Shiva sitting in an asana mediat-
ing? Is it a god of fertility? Is it an archaic god engaged in a shamanic rite? Historians are not
sure. Accordingly, a 5,000-year-old link to yoga practice is conjecture at this point.
The Vedas were written approximately 1,200 BCE. They reflect the context of their
times expressing some of yoga’s root philosophical themes and what we would see today
as eccentric, esoteric practices (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Stephens, 2010). The Upanishads were
written between 800 and 600 BCE. Themes expressed include: We are all part of some-
thing greater, answers lie within, and the knowledge of the true nature of self can be found
through consciousness (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010).
The Bhagavad Gita is the sixth book in a larger Indian text (i.e., the Mahabharata) writ-
ten sometime between the fifth and second centuries BCE. It was written as the dialogue
between a warrior named Arjuna and the god Krishna, Arjuna’s charioteer (Cook-Cottone,
2015; Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010). This text addresses the yoga of manag-
ing the inner experience of self within the context of the challenges and pressures presented
by our external world (Cook-Cottone, 2015). In the text, Krishna teaches Arjuna yoga phi-
losophy as he faces the dilemmas of battle (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Gandhi, 2011). If you are
interested in reading this text, I have found that this version is especially easy to understand;
see The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi, (Gandhi, 2011).
The Yoga Sutras were written between the second century BCE and the fourth century
CE. This text is considered to be fundamental to modern yoga philosophy (Cook-Cottone,
2015; Iyengar, 1996; Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010). The Yoga Sutras are a series
of concise sentences, or aphorisms, conveying the essential concepts of yoga theory and
practice (Anderson & Sovik, 2000; Cook-Cottone, 2015; Iyengar, 1996; Simpkins & Simpkins,
2011; Weintraub, 2004). The Yoga Sutras originated as an oral tradition presenting the