194 • Part III: YOGa FOr EDUCatING FOr SELF-rEGULatION aND ENGaGEMENt CHaPtEr 9: YOGa aS EMBODIED SELF-rEGULatION aND ENGaGEMENt • 195
practice of yoga in eight limbs (Anderson & Sovik, 2000; Cook-Cottone, 2015; Stephens,
2010; Weintraub, 2004). It is believed that the Yoga Sutras were originally written by some-
one named Patanjali, although it is unclear who or what Pantanjali may have been. He has
been described in many ways including a mythological figure and a professor of grammar
and linguistics (Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011). Interestingly, there are few references in the
Yoga Sutras to the physical postures of yoga. As you can see, today’s yoga, focused primar-
ily on postures, is far from its original philosophical roots (Cook-Cottone, 2015).
Yoga was introduced to Europe via a translation of the Bhagavad Gita from Sanskrit
to English in 1785, eventually making its way to America by 1845 (Cook-Cottone, 2015;
Douglass, 2007). Fitting for schools, the initial interest in yoga was intellectual and academic.
According to Douglass (2007), Ralph Waldo Emerson enthusiastically embraced the trans-
lation, inspiring serious inquiry into Hinduism and yoga. In the 1850s, the first signs of a
critical shift emerged (Cook-Cottone, 2015). That is, what were considered oriental religions
were being viewed as potential forms of practice rather than mere objects of study (Cook-
Cottone, 2015; De Michelis, 2008). According to Douglass (2007), Henry David Thoreau,
Emerson’s student, a progressive educator, abolitionist, and poet, was the first to transition
from the intellectual study of yoga to active practice. In fact, in a letter to a friend, Thoreau
described himself as a yogin (Douglass, 2007; Horton, 2012).
It is believed that tensions developed as academic scholars struggled with their interest
in yoga philosophy and practice, Asian religions, and the Christian belief that there is a single
path to God (Douglass, 2007). Thoreau’s continued practice of yoga begged the question
that is still asked by some today: “Does the study and practice of yoga lead the practitioner
away from Christianity?” (Douglass, 2007). Max Muller nearly personified these tensions
with his scholarship on ancient texts such as the Rig Veda (Singleton, 2010). The negative
tenor of his writings, which approached disgust, inspired a Hindu boycott of his lecture
series in India (Douglass, 2007). Reports suggest that, perhaps, Muller saw the early roots of
yoga as acceptable as they were more philosophical in nature (Singleton, 2010). However, he
described later forms of yoga (e.g., hatha) as part of the degeneration of yoga toward crude
practical applications. Ironically, it is the practical applications that are seen as more secular
and acceptable today (Cook-Cottone, Lemish, & Guyker, 2016).
This split of yoga’s philosophical and physical aspects continued. The 19th century wit-
nessed a rise in the phenomena of the performing yogi (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Singleton, 2010).
From some perspectives, yoga took a negative, even vulgar turn as yogis panhandled and
performed advanced asanas (i.e., yoga postures) in sideshows reminiscent of European con-
tortionism (Singleton, 2010). The argument continues today, as many view the present-day
social media posting of asanas as a reverberation of this voyeuristic and perhaps excluding
trend (Cook-Cottone, 2015). It is reported that some see these posts and think, “Only thin,
athletic, and beautiful people do yoga,” “Yoga is an art form to be observed and not prac-
ticed,” or “I could never do that. Yoga is not for me” (Cook-Cottone, 2015, p. 172). There
is little consensus as others argue that these photos and videos, including the historical
photos, are inspiring (Cook-Cottone, 2015).
Another shift occurred at the end of the 19th century. In 1893, Swami Vivekananda, well
versed in both Western philosophy and Indian traditions including yoga, spoke at the World
Parliament of the World’s Religions at the Chicago’s World’s Fair (Cook-Cottone, 2015;
De Michelis, 2008; Douglass, 2007; Strauss, 2005). Although not embraced by academics,
Vivekananda’s framing of yoga as an approach to physical health accessible to everyone
helped defuse tension around religion, opened the door to yoga as a subject for all, and