102 chapter four
theoretical grounding. The same is true for conspicuousness. Many pro-
social endeavors show a strong preference for conspicuousness and empty
grandeur. In the early decades of post – World War II prosociality, Mor-
genthau identified a penchant for big capital projects that generated very
few tangible economic benefits.
The unprofitable or idle steel mill, the highway without traffic and leading no-
where, the airline operating with foreign personnel and at a loss but under the
flag of the recipient country — all ostensibly serve the purpose of economic de-
velopment and under different circumstances might do so. Actually, however,
they perform no positive economic function. (Morgenthau 1962 , 303 )
For Morgenthau, this type of aid had little to do with the needs of the
recipients or with economic logic and more to do with political calculus,
because such projects reflected on the prestige of the donor: “A limited
commitment of resources in the form of a spectacular but economically use-
less symbol of modernity may bring disproportionate political dividends”
(Morgenthau 1962 , 304 ). More recent studies identify a similar preference
for large- scale and capital- rich projects that lead to suboptimal utilization
of aid resources and sometimes adversely affect the recipients (Tendler
1975 ; Ensign 1992 ; Van der Veen 2000 , 157 ; Moyo 2009 ). Indeed, interna-
tional prosociality is packed with examples of failed projects, sym bolic
policies, tokenism, and outright folly.
The discussion so far has emphasized patterns that were already ex-
plored in previous chapters. However, prosociality offers insights into more
nuanced dynamics of the conspicuous consumption model. In particular, it
emphasizes the role of hierarchy and social bonds. In order to explore these
aspects, I will first offer an overview of the relevant literature on prosocial-
ity and consumption before turning to develop three important dimensions
of prosociality: the connections between prosociality, subordination, and
dominance; the link between prosociality and conflict; and finally, the rela-
tion between prosociality and class.
Prosociality as a Costly Signal: An Overview
Analyses of prosociality as a case of conspicuous consumption are in-
creasingly prevalent among evolutionary anthropologists, zoologists, and
economists. I have already alluded to Zahavi’s “handicap principle” in
previous chapters. In their book, Zahavi and Zahavi utilize the handicap
