180 notes to pages 91–97
specific countries, most notably the United States. For examples of this literature,
see Regan ( 1985 ), Wang ( 1999 ), Wittikof ( 1973 ), Kegley and Hook ( 1991 ), Aarse
( 1995 ), Conteh- Morgan ( 1990 ), McKinlay and Little ( 1977 , 1979 ), Lebovic ( 1988 ),
Meernik, Krueger, and Poe ( 1998 ), Meernik and Poe ( 1996 ), Poe and Meernik
( 1995 ), and Lumsdaine ( 1993 ). Some researchers focus on the unique determi-
nants of specific kinds of aid: e.g., Uvin ( 1992 ), Paarlberg ( 1985 ), and Kegley and
Hook ( 1991 ) offer a discussion of food aid. For a review of the literature on media-
tion, see Gilady and Russett ( 2002 ).
- For literature questioning the utility of aid, see Moyo 2009 ; Kosack and To-
bin 2006 ; Easterly 2003 , 2006 ; Rajan and Subramanian 2008 ; Friedman 1957 / 1958 ;
Boone 1996 ; Bauer 1948 , 1954 ; Boyce 2002 ; Levy 1989 ; Diamond 1998. For a more
positive outlook on aid effectiveness, see Burnside and Dollar 2000 ; Radelet, Clem-
ens, and Bhavnani 2005 ; Hadjimichael et al. 1995 ; Dalgaard, Hansen, and Tarp
2004 ; Roodman 2007 ; Petrikova 2016. For a critique of humanitarian assistance,
see Lischer 2003. - For a more positive assessment of the UN peacekeeping record, see Fortna
2004 ; Doyle and Sambanis 2006. - Frohlich ( 1974 , 60 ) notes that this formulation can be used to describe other
types of relationships, such as envy, sadism, and other mixed forms. - Andreoni ( 1995 a) conducted several experiments to measure the effects of
warm glow giving. He finds that actors are more likely to take part in acts that are
framed as good, and hence involve a warm glow feeling, than in identical acts that
are framed as bad, and hence are associated with a negative externality, or cold
prickle. Park ( 2000 ) refines some of these findings. De Quervain et al. ( 2004 ) em-
ployed brain scanners to track brain activity during actors’ participation in proso-
cial acts. They identify brain activity patterns that correspond to warm glow giving.
See also Boyd et al. 2003 ; Fehr and Gachter 2002 ; Fowler 2005. - For a realist take on this question, see Glazer 1994 / 1995.
- In many articles this group is defined as a “k- group,” Schelling’s more refined
term for Olson’s privileged group; see Schelling 1978. Snidal ( 1985 , 599 ) defines k
as the point “where the benefits of cooperation begin to outweigh the costs for the
cooperating states”; see also Gowa 1989 , 316 ; Lake 1993 , 465. - Stokke ( 1989 ) argues that variations in foreign aid allocations are best ex-
plained through party politics. When the Left is in power, aid goes up, and vice
versa. Lumsdaine ( 1993 ) reaches similar conclusions. However, subsequent quan-
titative studies find little or no support for the Lumsdaine- Stokke argument that
“the Left matters” (Imbeau 1988 , 1989 ; Breuning 1995 ; Thérien and Noël 1994 ,
2000 ; Round and Odedokum 2003 ). - The data provided in this section are official UN data for December 2009.
- According to Schreader, Hook, and Taylor ( 1998 , 299 – 300 ), Sweden used
an alternative policy in order to improve the broadcast efficiency of its aid effort.
Instead of spreading its aid thinly across the world, Sweden chose one geographic