292 JULIA A. JOLLY"the negativity of non-spatial from." (76) Jackendoff's (1983) analysis of
from as NOT AT comes closest to the decomposed structure proposed in
this analysis.
Transfers of possession contexts also exhibit contrasting semantic
structures for to and from, as in (42a) and (42b) (FVV example, 55).
(42) a. John gave the book to Bill.
b. John took the book from Bill.
An analysis of the semantic structures of give and take reveals a single LS,
as in (42c).
(42) [do'(w)] CAUSE [[BECOME NOT have' (x,y)] & [BE
COME have' (z,y)]]
In the proposed LS, y=theme, z=goal and x=source. Specification of the
effector (w) as χ or ζ yields the contrasting semantic structures of give and
take: with give, w=x; with take, w=z. This analysis yields LSs for (43a) and
(43b) as follows:
(43) a. [do' (John)] CAUSE [[BECOME NOT have' (John, book)]
& [BECOME have' (Bill, book)]]
b. [do' (John)])] CAUSE [[BECOME NOT have' (Bill, book)]
& [BECOME have' (John, book)]]
Thus, to and from are functions of the LS of transfer accomplishment
verbs, their respective BECOME have' and BECOME NOT have' struc
tures matching those in the LS of the verbs. Since the semantic valence of
three for give generally equals its syntactic valence, the locative-goal is usu
ally realized syntactically,^11 whether positionally marked {John gave Bill the
book) or prepositionally marked, as in (42a). The syntactic valence for take
can be two (as in John took the book) where only the effector-goal and
theme are realized — or three, as in (42b) where effector-goal, theme and
locative-source are realized, the latter marked by from (cf. FVV:83 for an
analysis of other removal verbs). To summarize, whenever there is a two-
place stative verb (that is, with verbs of perception, cognition, possession
and location), if that predicate is embedded under BECOME and its first
argument is not the undergoer, the argument is marked by to.
A final set of accomplishment verbs which specify to and from in their
LSs are the transformation verbs discussed in section 2.3 as maximally
expanded structures. In a sentence such as (44), into^12 realizes BECOME
exist' (x) in LS.