Western Civilization

Athena, Ares, and all the gods and goddesses, I will abide

by the peace, and I will not break the agreements with

Philip the Macedonian, nor will I take up arms with hos-

tile intent against any one of those who abide by the

oaths either by land or by sea.”^1

Although Philip allowed the Greek city-states

autonomy in domestic affairs, he retained the general

direction of their foreign affairs. Philip insisted that

the Greek states end their bitter rivalries and cooperate

with him in a war against Persia. Before Philip could

undertake his invasion of Asia, however, he was assas-

sinated, leaving the task to his son Alexander.

Alexander the Great

Alexander was only twenty when he became king of

Macedonia. The illustrious conqueror had in many

ways been prepared for kingship by his father, who had

taken Alexander along on military campaigns and had

put him in command of the cavalry at the important

Battle of Chaeronea. After his father’s assassination,

Alexander moved quickly to assert his authority, secur-

ing the Macedonian frontiers and smothering a rebel-

lion in Greece. He then turned to his father’s dream,

the invasion of the Persian Empire.

THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER There is no doubt that

Alexander was taking a chance in attacking the Persian

Empire. Although weakened in some respects, it was

still a strong state. Alexander’s fleet was inferior to the

Persian navy, and his finances were shaky at best. In

the spring of 334B.C.E., Alexander entered Asia Minor

with an army of some 37,000 men. About half were

Macedonians, the rest Greeks and other allies. The cav-

alry, which would play an important role as a strike

force, numbered about 5,000.

Alexander’s first confrontation with the Persians,

in a battle at the Granicus River in 334B.C.E.(see

Map 4.1), nearly cost him his life but resulted in a

major victory. By spring 333B.C.E., the entire west-

ern half of Asia Minor was in Alexander’s hands, and

the Ionian Greek cities of western Asia Minor had

been “liberated” from the Persian oppressor. Mean-

while, the Persian king, Darius III, mobilized his

forces to stop Alexander’s army. Although the Per-

sian troops outnumbered Alexander’s, the Battle of

Issus was fought on a narrow field that canceled the

advantage of superior numbers and resulted in

another Macedonian success. The Persian cause was

certainly not helped when Darius made a spectacular

exit from the battlefield before it was even clear who

would win. After his victory at Issus in 333B.C.E.,

Alexander turned south, and by the winter of 332

B.C.E., Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were under his

domination. He took the traditional title of pharaoh

of Egypt and founded the first of a series of cities

named after him (Alexandria) as the Greek adminis-

trative capital of Egypt. It became (and remains

today) one of Egypt’s and the Mediterranean world’s

most important cities.

The next year, Alexander renewed his offensive,

moving into the territory of the ancient Mesopota-

mian kingdoms and fighting a decisive battle with

the Persians not far from Babylon. At Gaugamela

Alexander the Great.This marble head of Alexander the

Great was made in the second or first centuryB.C.E. The long

hair and tilt of his head reflect the descriptions of Alexander in

the literary sources of the time. This portrait shows a youthful

and even godlike appearance. Alexander claimed to be

descended from Heracles, a Greek hero worshiped as a god,

and as pharaoh of Egypt, he gained recognition as a living

deity. It is reported that one statue, now lost, showed

Alexander gazing at Zeus. At the base of the statue were the

words “I place the earth under my sway; you, O Zeus, keep

Olympus.”

ª

The Trustees of the British Museum/Art Resource, NY

76 Chapter 4 The Hellenistic World

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