Western Civilization

internal stability but also pacified bordering territories,

thus reducing the threat that bandits posed to traders.

As a result, merchants developed a network of trade

routes that brought these two great empires into com-

mercial contact. Most important was the overland Silk

Road, a regular caravan route between West and East.

The Silk Road was the route used to transport Chi-

nese exports of silk cloth to the West. Silk became a

craze among Roman elites, leading to a vast outpouring

of silver from Rome to China and provoking the Roman

emperor Tiberius to grumble that “the ladies and their

baubles are transferring our money to foreigners.” The

silk trade also stimulated a degree of mutual curiosity

between the two great civilizations but not much mutual

knowledge or understanding. So far as is known, no per-

sonal or diplomatic contacts between the two civiliza-

tions ever took place.

Increased trade helped stimulate manufacturing.

The cities of the East still produced the items made in

Hellenistic times. The first two centuries of the empire

also witnessed the high point of industrial develop-

ment in Italy. Some industries became concentrated in

certain areas, such as bronze work in Capua and pot-

tery in Arretium in Etruria. Other industries, such as

brickmaking, were pursued in rural areas on large

landed estates. Much production remained small-scale

and was done by individual craftsmen, usually freed-

men or slaves. In the course of the first century, Italian

centers of industry began to experience increasing com-

petition from the provinces.

Despite the extensive trade and commerce, agricul-

ture remained the chief occupation of most people and

the underlying basis of Roman prosperity. While the

large landed estates calledlatifundiastill dominated

agriculture, especially in southern and central Italy,

small peasant farms persisted, particularly in Etruria

and the Po Valley. Although large estates concentrating

on sheep and cattle raising used slaves, the lands of

some latifundia were worked by free tenant farmers

who paid rent in labor, produce, or sometimes cash.

In considering the prosperity of the Roman world, it

is important to remember the enormous gulf between

rich and poor (see the box on p. 130). The development

of towns and cities, so important to the creation of any

civilization, is based in large degree on the agricultural

surpluses of the countryside. In ancient times, the mar-

gin of surplus produced by each farmer was relatively

small. Therefore, the upper classes and urban popula-

tions had to be supported by the labor of a large num-

ber of farmers who never found it easy to produce

much more than enough for themselves. In lean years,

when there were no surpluses, the townspeople often

took what they wanted, leaving little for the peasants.

Roman Culture and Society in

the Early Empire

Q FOCUSQUESTION: What were the chief intellectual,

artistic, and social developments in the early

empire? How did these differ from the intellectual,

artistic, and social developments of the republic?

The shift from republic to empire not only transformed

the Roman political world but also affected its

cultural and social life. Intellectuals found ways to

accommodate the autocratic rule of emperors, while

Roman architects created massive buildings befitting

an empire. Gladiatorial games increased dramatically

in size and number in the early empire, and upper-

class women acquired greater independence.

The Golden Age of Latin Literature

The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age was

Virgil (VUR-jul) (70–19B.C.E.). The son of a small land-

holder in northern Italy, he welcomed the rule of

Augustus and wrote his greatest work in the emperor’s

honor. Virgil’s masterpiece was the Aeneid, an epic

poem clearly meant to rival the work of Homer. The

connection between Troy and Rome is made explicitly.

Aeneas (i-NEE-uss), the son of Anchises of Troy, sur-

vives the destruction of Troy and eventually settles in

Latium; hence, Roman civilization is linked to Greek

history. The character of Aeneas is portrayed as the

ideal Roman—his virtues are duty, piety, and faithful-

ness. Virgil’s overall purpose was to show that Aeneas

had fulfilled his mission to establish the Romans in

Italy and thereby start Rome on its divine mission to

rule the world.

Let others fashion from bronze more lifelike, breathing

images—

For so they shall—and evoke living faces from marble;

Others excel as orators, others track with their instruments

The planets circling in heaven and predict when stars will

appear.

But, Romans, never forget that government is your medium!

Be this your art:—to practice men in the habit of peace,

Generosity to the conquered, and firmness against

aggressors.^6

As Virgil expressed it, ruling was Rome’s gift.

Roman Culture and Society in the Early Empire 129

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

`ˆÌi`Ê܈̅Ê̅iÊ`i“œÊÛiÀȜ˜ÊœvÊ

˜vˆÝÊ*ÀœÊ*Ê

`ˆÌœÀÊ

/œÊÀi“œÛiÊ̅ˆÃʘœÌˆVi]ÊۈÈÌ\Ê