On the Laws(Cicero), 111
On the Motion of the Heart and Blood
(Harvey), 394
On the Republic(Cicero), 111
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
(Copernicus), 388,389, 390
Oppian Law (Rome), 108
Optimates(Rome), 112
Oracle, of Delphi, 67
Orange, house of, 372.See alsoWilliam and
Mary (England)
Oration on the Dignity of Man(Pico della
Mirandola), 284
Orbits, of planets, 389, 393
Ordeal, in law, 155, 214
Ordeal of Hot Water, An(Gregory of Tours),
155
Order of Preachers.SeeDominicans
Orders (classes): in Rome, 98, 99, 123–24.
See alsoEstates (social orders); Religious
orders
Orders of Friars Minor.SeeFranciscans
Oresteia(Aeschylus), 63
Origen of Alexandria, 140–41
Orle ́ans, 257; duke of, 256, 261
Orthodox Christianity.SeeEastern
Orthodoxy
Osiris (god), 19
Ostia, 127
Ostracism, in Athens, 60
Ostrogoths, 150, 152–53, 153 (map), 162
Otto I (Germany), 189, 228
Ottoman Empire: in 16th and 17th
centuries, 368 (map); absolutism in, 370;
Austria and, 367; Charles V and, 308–9
Ottoman Turks, 245, 295–96.See also
Ottoman Empire
Otto of Freising, 236
Out-of-Africa theory, of human origins, 2
Overseas trade, 353–54
Ovid, 130–31
Oxford University (England), 212
Pachakuti (Inca), 336
Painting: Baroque, 379, 379 ; Dutch, 373,
373 ; by Giotto, 267; Mannerist, 378;
Realist,380,380–81.See alsospecific
artists
Pakistan, Alexander the Great in, 77
Palaces: Assyrian, 38; Cretan at Knossus,
50–51; Mycenaean, 51; Persian, 44
Palazzo Vecchio, 290
Paleolithic Age, 3
Paleologus dynasty, 295–96
Palestine: Alexander the Great and, 76; in
Crusades, 243; Jesus and, 141
Pantheon (Rome), 125
Papacy: at Avignon, 263–64, 263 (map), 265;
in Catholic Reformation, 317–19; church-
state struggle and, 263; decline in,
262–65; France and, 308; Inquisition and,
238; Italy and, 228–29; Reformation and,
308; reforms of, 232–33; in Renaissance,
297,297–98; supremacy of, 156–57, 233,
263, 264.See alsoPope
Papal bulls, 263, 317
Papal curia, 233Papal States: in 12th century, 228 (map); in
14th century, 264; church-state struggle
in, 232; Germany and, 228–29; Gregory I
and, 156; Italy and, 279
Paper, 194
Papyrus, 20, 34
Paraguay, 349
Paris: Fronde in, 363; universities in, 212
Parlements (France), 226
Parliament.SeeParliament (England)
Parliament (England): emergence of, 224;
English civil war and, 374; Henry VII and,
292; monarchy and, 372, 374, 376;
structure of, 260–61
Parthenon (Athens),64, 65
Partitions, of Poland, 367 (map)
Pascal, Blaise, 400–402
Paterfamilias(Rome), 106, 107, 132
Patriarch (Eastern Orthodox), 241; of
Constantinople, 188
Patriarchy: in Babylon, 11; Neolithic, 5
Patricians, 99, 112, 209, 277
Patronage, of scientists, 400
Paul III (Pope),317,318–19
Paul IV (Pope), 319
Paul of Tarsus (Saint), 141, 143, 179
Pax Romana, 125
Peace of Augsburg, 309, 309 (map)
Peace of the Pyrenees, 366
Peace of Westphalia, 361–62, 366, 372
Peasants: in 14th century, 254–55, 255 ;in
16th century, 353; agricultural changes
and, 201; diet of, 179; in Egypt, 23; in
England, 255; in France, 254, 255 ;
households of, 202; lifestyle of, 202;
manorial system and, 186–87, 186 (map),
187 ; in Poland, 295; in Renaissance,
277–78; revolts by, 254–55,255,362.
See alsoSerfs and serfdom
Peasants’ Crusade, 242
Peasants’ Revolt (England, 1381), 255
Peasants’ War, 307, 312
Pecheneg people, 241
Peloponnesian League, 58
Peloponnesian War, 61–62
Peloponnesus region, 49, 51, 56, 58
Penitential of Cummean, 159
Pense ́es(Pascal), 401
Pepin, 174, 176
Pergamum, 81, 82, 104
Pericles (Athens),40,59, 60–61
Perioikoi(free inhabitants), 56
Perpetua, 143
Persecution: of Christians, 142, 143; of Jews,
238–39, 240
Persepolis,44, 77
Persia and Persian Empire, 40–45; Alexander
the Great and, 73–74, 76–77, 77 (map);
Arab conquest of, 168; Croesus and,
67–68; customs of, 41; under Darius, 42
(map); Egypt and, 21; expansion of, 42;
governing of, 39; Greece and, 59–60, 62;
Judah and, 31–32; kings of, 40–42;
Mongols in, 231; Phoenicians and, 36;
religion in, 44–45
Persian language, 28
Persian Wars, The(Herodotus), 62Peru, 336, 337, 351; civilization in, 6–7, 7
(map)
Peter (Saint), 141, 156
Peter the Great (Russia), 369–70, 370
Peter the Hermit, 242
Petition of Right (England), 374
Petrarch, 283
Phalanx: Greek, 54; Hellenistic, 83;
Macedonian, 74
Pharaoh (Egypt), 16, 18, 19, 20; Hatshepsut
as, 23–24; Ptolemaic dynasty of, 81
Pharisees, 139
Philip II (Augustus, France), 212, 224, 226,
226 (map), 233, 245
Philip II (Macedonia), 49, 59, 62;
Demosthenes, Isocrates, and, 74, 75;
Greece conquered by, 74
Philip II (Spain): decline of Spain and, 366;
Elizabeth I (England) and, 320; England
and, 322, 324; marriage of, 313; revolt of
Netherlands and, 320–21; Spanish power
under, 320, 321
Philip III (Spain), 366
Philip IV (the Fair, France), 226, 262–63,
263, 264
Philip IV (Spain), 366
Philip VI (France), 256
Philippics(Demosthenes), 74, 75
Philippines, 328, 333, 340
Philistines, 30, 34
Philosophy: Arab, 214; Greek, 65–67;
Hellenistic, 89–90
Philoxenos of Eretria, 80
Phintys, ‘‘On Chastity,’’ 85
Phoenicia and Phoenicians, 34–36, 102.
See alsoCarthage
Phoenician language, 10 (tab.), 35, 36 (tab.);
Greeks and, 52
Photian schism, 188
Photius (Patriarch), 188
Physicians: in Middle Ages, 180.See also
Medicine
Pi (mathematics), 88
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, 284
Pictograph, 13 (tab.)
Pilate, Pontius (Rome), 141
Pilgrimages, Christian, 245
Pinta(ship), 333
Piraeus, 68
Pirates, 322, 351
Pisa: Council of, 265; Crusades and, 243, 245
Pisistratus (Athens), 58
Pizarro, Francisco, Inca and, 336
Plague, 165, 249–50, 250–51; in Athens, 6.
See alsoBlack Death
Planetary motion, 387, 388, 389, 393
Planets, 387, 388, 389
Plantagenet dynasty, 223
Plantations, 338, 346
Plants: in Columbian Exchange, 351; in
Paleolithic period, 3.See alsoAgriculture;
Crop(s)
Plassey, Battle of, 344
Plataea, battle at, 60
Plato, 55, 66, 194, 283,289,386, 387
Platonic thought, Neoplatonism and, 283–84
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