The first is that there has to be an opponent; the operational art can only be
expressed in relation to, and in the face of, an opponent practising his operational
art. You should have a strategy before the war or operation commences, and you
should have trained your forces in their skill at arms and tactics. But the opera-
tional art can only be practised in the event, and the art is effectively judged by the
opponent.
The operational art is practised by one man. He is appointed to this responsi-
bility by his superiors at the political and strategic levels, and he must retain their
confidence. He is given or must assume the authority to discharge his art. In
practising his art, he links the strategy within which his operation sits to the
tactical acts his command performs. He seeks to achieve the product rather than
the sum of the tactical acts so as to gain the operational objectives that either alter
the strategic situation to his advantage or directly achieve the strategic goal. The
totality of his art is expressed in a campaign in a theatre of operations.
Operational art can be understood in three ways. First, as a free, creative, and
original expression of the use of force and forces. Where to concentrate and where
to disperse, what is to appear ordinary and what extraordinary, what objectives to
set and achieve in what order, how to lead the opponent into unwitting coopera-
tion, and how to take advantage of time and space are all examples of where there
is freedom of choice. Second, in the design of the operation. The larger the forces
deployed and the greater the complexity of their employment, the greater the
significance of operational design. Logistics, engineering, the use of technology,
organization, and administration are examples of the factors to be considered in
designing the operation. Third, in the direction of the operation to its successful
conclusion. In large measure, this is an expression of the character and aptitude
of the operational commander—the artist. His leadership, seen in the confident
tactical skill and flair of his subordinates and the morale and discipline of
his force, is essential. His presence at the right time and place; his calmness in
crisis and fortitude; the balance, timing, and coherence of his decisions; his
boldness and seizure of the moment—all these are manifestations of excellence
in direction.
PRESENTIn 1945, as argued inThe Utility of Force, war in the form of industrial war ceased
to have utility and wars amongst the people made their appearance. The essential
difference between the two was that in war amongst the people, military force
is no longer used to decide the matter but to create a condition in which the
strategic result is achieved; the strategic object being to alter the opponent’s
intentions rather than to destroy him. War is now a state of continual confronta-
tion in which conflicts occur. The military acts in the conflict support the
achievement of the desired outcome of the confrontation by other than military
Epilogue 233