specifying sexual differences in texts or images. There are grounds to doubt that
Sumerian social structure was strictly patriarchal, because accession through the female
line was possible, and women occupied high positions in states, economy, and cult,
could be head of a family, and had substantial legal rights (e.g., A. Westenholz 1999 :
70 – 72 ; Selz 2005 ).
Under the ideological umbrella provided by religion, those persons with close ties
to deities and temples – rulers and their families, priests/priestesses, temple admini-
strators – were the most powerful agents in the polities. The rulers’ functions included
that of intermediary between deities and people, a reciprocal symbolic role representing
the city deity vis-à-vis the people as well as the people vis-à-vis the city deity. Women’s
various functions in cult and ritual were also significant throughout the third millen-
nium but are best attested for royal women.
WOMEN IN THE LATER URUK PERIOD
In the second half of the fourth millennium, the city of Uruk developed into the most
important urban centre, its influence extending as far as Iran (Elam) and Anatolia
which prompted the modern notion of the “Uruk World System.” The “world view”
of Uruk culture is believed to be represented on the large vase found in level III A
(c. 3000 ) of the treasury of the Eanna sanctuary at Uruk (see Figure 11. 5 , this volume).
From the bottom up, water symbolizes the foundation of all life, plants and animals
represent the economic foundation, the arrangement of rams and ewes in pairs alludes
to male and female roles in reproduction. The procession of nude men bringing
offerings, together with the ritual scene in the top register, allude to the ideological
foundation resting on kingship and temple. In the center of the top register stands a
woman – whether Inana or priestess is uncertain – and two Inana symbols, framed on
the left by three men connected with offerings, on the right by the temple storehouse
filled with produce and votive objects. The bearded man in a long “net skirt” (in part
reconstructed) is well known from other images and supposedly represents the priestly
ruler of Uruk. The total image symbolizes human dependency on nature, agriculture,
animal husbandry, and a storage economy as well as religious–political ideology. Nude
men bring offerings which a ruler/priest presents to Inana or her priestess; in turn,
Inana guarantees abundance. According to Mesopotamian mythology, deities created
humans to free them of their toil; consequently, the purpose of human life was to build
temples and provide deities with everything they needed. A fragment of a second vase
is preserved (Becker 1983 ) and perhaps a procession of women (which are depicted on
seals; Asher-Greve 1985 ) replaced that of nude men.
At the end of the fourth millennium (c. 3200 ) writing was invented – whether in Uruk
or Susa is controversial. The script was used to record calculations and economic trans-
actions and does not represent spoken language. The few other, non-administrative,
tablets contain lists of categories such as trees, domestic animals, locations, titles, or
professions. The hierarchical arrangement of titles and professions seem to reflect social
structure. No gender is attached to titles and professions, but it is assumed that office
holders and professionals were men. The signs may not refer to Sumerian words but
many, including some designating women, can be “read” as such. For example, AMA
(mother), NIN (queen, mistress), SAL/MÍ/MUNUS (woman), DAM (wife or
husband), TUR (child, boy, or girl), SAL + TUR (girl) also occurs several times. Further
–– Julia M. Asher-Greve ––