(Gustavson 1986 : 14 ), indicates a conscious use and speaks in favour of the ideological
interpretation.
RUNESTONES AND THE CHRISTIANISATIONThe conversion of Scandinavia is a very complicated process with major geographical
and chronological differences and fluctuations. To facilitate the analyses of this process
it is usually considered as comprised by different periods or phases with different
characteristics; a phase of infiltration, a phase of mission and a phase of organisation
(Birkeli 1973 : 14 ff.). During the phase of infiltration Christian influences reached a
region passively through the interaction with Christians in a nearby region or country,
or through trade communication with more remote areas. During the phase of mission
Christian influences were actively directed towards a region through the efforts of mis-
sionaries, and Christian ideas and beliefs were beginning to settle in among a growing
part of the population. During the phase of organisation the majority of the population
was already converted, and an organised ecclesiastical structure was developing. Even
though the conversion as a whole gradually moved from a phase of infiltration towards
a phase of organisation, it was not a linear process, and there were setbacks. We have to
assume that the conversion advanced at different rates in different regions, and that all of
these phases could occur simultaneously in different areas of the same country or region.
Using this terminology, the production of runestones can mostly be said to occur during
the phase of mission. The tradition seems to have been discouraged in regions where a
more organised ecclesiastical structure had developed. There the social, political and
economic resourses were instead channelled towards the Church and more traditional
expressions of Christian faith.
THE PROCESS OF CONVERSIONChristianity came to Scandinavia from Europe, and so did the concept of the Christian
cross and its use on Christian monuments. While the majority of the Swedish runestone
crosses are uniquely Scandinavian in their overall design, some of their details quite
naturally have similarities with cross-shapes found on contemporary European monu-
ments and artefacts. To most parts these similarities can be traced to the British Isles,
either as details found on carved stone crosses or on details on imported objects from
this area, such as cross-pendants or coins (Lager 2002 : 156 ). These similarities indicate
interaction between these areas during the production of the runestones, and hence also
during the phase of mission. The impact of British influences in Sweden during this
period is further supported by philological analyses of runic inscriptions and early
Scandinavian liturgical manuscripts (Thors 1957 : 360 – 1 ). While words with an English
origin seem to have been dominant in the formation of a basic Scandinavian Christian
vocabulary, words with German origins can mostly be associated with a more advanced
and organised ecclesiastical structure. Based on both art-historical and philological
analyses it seems reasonable to assume that contacts with Christians in, and from, the
British Isles were very influential in Scandinavia during the initial phases of infiltration
and mission. When contacts with this area ceased after the battle of Hastings in 1066 ,
the continued involvement from the German Church led to an increased dependence
on a German vocabulary during the phase of organisation. Since most of the remaining
–– Anne-Sofie Gräslund and Linn Lager––