historical sources were written within the realms of the German Church, they generally
downplay the impact of British Christianity during the Scandinavian conversion.
Although the German mission undisputedly played an important role, the information
supplied by the runestones adds to a more nuanced picture.
SCANDINAVIAN CHRISTIANITY AND EUROPEThe phase of mission was a phase of transformation, and the runestones produced
during this phase can be considered a transitory phenomenon with a mix of old and
new influences, indigenous as well as foreign. The late Viking Age runestones have
their origins within the Scandinavian culture and the runestone tradition of previous
centuries, but with significant additions through new influences from European
Christianity. The combination of visual and ideological elements from both of these
cultures makes these runestones into Christian monuments with a very distinct, and
uniquely Scandinavian, character. Those who produced and ordered cross-pendants,
runestones and other Christian objects in Scandinavia during the later part of the Viking
Age, were well acquainted with the European material through travels and imports.
Since most of these foreign ornamental influences seem to have been discarded in the
indigenous production of artefacts, the Scandinavian characteristics found on these
objects were most likely developed and maintained intentionally (Staecker 1999 ; Lager
2002 ).
Converting to Christianity implied a change of religious identity. However, by this
time Christianity was far more than just a system of religious belief. It was a cultural,
political and social institution that defined most of the kingdoms and empires in
Europe. From a Scandinavian perspective Christianity was synonymous with ‘the
others’, with areas and people that they had spent centuries trading with, but also
ravaging and conquering (Lager 2004 : 147 ff.). Scandinavia was a powerful region, and
it was probably imperative for many Scandinavians that their conversion was not per-
ceived as a sign of cultural or political defeat. Converting to Christianity consequently
raised questions about cultural, political and ethnic identity. While many Scandinavians
were willing to convert, and change their religious identity, they might not have been
equally willing to convert their Scandinavian identity. The conversion had to be done
without losing face and with a maintained sense of integrity. Christianity itself had
to be, at least seemingly, converted from something that used to define ‘the others’ into
something that could also define themselves: as Christian Scandinavians.
The design and concepts behind the late Viking Age runestones, as well as other
indigenously produced Christian artefacts, were familiar, yet innovative, ensuring a sense
of cultural continuity despite profound changes (Lager 2004 : 147 ff.). By carefully com-
bining an eclectic selection of foreign designs with indigenously developed traditional
elements and motifs, Christianity was made Scandinavian. This also enabled the Scandi-
navian culture to function as a mediator or catalyst in understanding and explaining the
Christian faith. Metaphorical allusions and comparisons with the traditional world-
view, its legends and values, were facilitated by the use of Scandinavian ornamentation.
Through this solution, Christianity enriched the Scandinavian culture and identity,
instead of depriving it of its fundaments. It was only when these new influences
were fully absorbed into the Scandinavian culture that steps towards more orthodox
expressions of Christian faith were possible, and the production of runestones ceased.
–– chapter 46 : Runestones and the Christian missions––