116 Who Are Our Friends?
of important needs in the future (Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003). These outcomes,
in contrast to concrete outcomes (i.e., the direct experience of pleasure or pain),
emerge from situations in which an interaction partner has acted altruistically,
out of line with their own best interest and instead in line with the individual’s
(Agnew & Le, 2015).
Symbolic outcomes are crucial for interdependence processes to unfold, as they
provide the impetus to engage in transformation of motivation, a key concept from
IT (Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003). What is transformation of motivation? In simple
interactions, in which no broader considerations are relevant, individuals often act
in line with their self- interested, immediate best interest (Rusbult & Van Lange,
2003). This occurs when people are under time pressure or heavy cognitive capac-
ity, suggesting that reacting to the immediate situation in this way is an effortless
process (Baumeister, Bradslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Yovetich & Rusbult,
1994). In some situations, however, individuals override this “gut level” response
and engage in what is known as transformation of motivation (Kelley, 1991). In
doing so, they act in line with broader considerations: the desire to maintain a satis-
fying relationship, to show altruism for one’s interaction partner, or to collect favors
for later, among others (Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003). Doing so allows individuals
to make choices and act in ways to ensure their desired future state is obtained, but
is effortful and often requires a departure from immediate self- interest. As such, an
individual must have sufficient motivation to engage in such transformation. The
structure of the situation itself can, at times, promote transformation, such as in
interaction patterns that will necessarily extend over time. More often the choice
to transform is due to relationship- specific motivations (e.g., trust, commitment;
Balliet & Van Lange, 2013; Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003).
During the course of relationships (friendship and romantic), partners share
many interaction situations in which they can ascertain each other’s orientation
toward the relationship. As defined earlier in this chapter, friendship is character-
ized by the importance of affection, intimacy, relatable alliance, and instrumental
and emotional support (Berndt, 2002). Especially relevant to the discussion of
symbolic outcomes is the notion of support, which often occurs in situations with
conflicting outcomes. The support provider has to balance their desire to spend
time and energy on themselves, with the needs of their partner in that moment.
When they opt to provide support, thus meeting a friendship need and acting out
of line with their immediate self- interest, they are providing not only concrete out-
comes, but also symbolic outcomes (Balliet & Van Lange, 2013). Insofar as a part-
ner consistently provides fulfillment of friendship needs, we argue, the individual
will come to feel safe in the relationship, obtain sufficient symbolic outcomes to be
secure in interdependence, and will engage in ample transformation of motivation
to establish a mutually satisfying, trusting relationship over time. Individuals are
likely to trust the advice from friends regarding their romance, and are likely to trust
their romantic partner to deepen the bond.