Douglas, Gavin (c. 1474–1522) Scottish churchman and
poet
The son of the fifth earl of Angus, Douglas studied at St.
Andrews University (1489–94), received his first ecclesi-
astical appointment in 1496, and became provost of St.
Giles, Edinburgh, about five years later. The allegorical
poems The Palace of Honour and King Hart (the latter pos-
sibly not by Douglas) were not published until long after
his death, but were probably written between 1501 and
- His translation of VIRGIL’s Aeneid into Scots, the first
version of the poem made in Britain, was completed in
July 1513, but not published until 1553. Douglas’s pro-
logues to each book of the Aeneid are some of his finest
original verse, and the translation itself, in vigorous heroic
couplets, makes up in energy what it lacks in accuracy (see
TRANSLATIONS OF CLASSICAL AUTHORS). After James IV’s
death at the battle of Flodden (1513), Douglas’s career was
embroiled in politics, and he was only installed as bishop
of Dunkeld (1516) with much help from the widowed
queen. Further upheavals sent him into exile in London
(1521), where he died.
Dovizi, Bernardo See BIBBIENA, BERNARDO DOVIZI, IL
Dowland, John (1563–1626) English composer and
lutenist
Dowland is first mentioned as being in the service of Sir
Henry Cobham, ambassador (1579–83) to France. While
there he converted to Catholicism. After his return to Eng-
land, probably in 1584, Dowland’s music was performed at
court, but on the rejection of his application for the post
of queen’s lutenist (1594) he went abroad again, traveling
through Germany and Italy. In 1596 or 1597 he was back
in England and published his First Booke of Songes or
Ayres of Foure Partes with Tableture for the Lute (1597), an
anthology of songs for solo voice and lute or four-part
ayres; it was very popular and reprinted at least four times.
By November 18, 1598 Dowland was lutenist at the court
of Christian IV of Denmark, where he remained until his
dismissal in 1606.
After his return to England, Dowland entered the ser-
vice of Lord Walden. Though at this time he complained
of neglect and criticism from younger lutenists, Dowland
was enjoying considerable respect and popularity both in
England and on the Continent. His famous Lachrymae
(1605) was widely used in arrangements by other com-
posers, and references to it in contemporary theatrical and
literary works reflect its enormous popularity. He was fi-
nally appointed one of the king’s lutes in 1612. Dowland
wrote many attractive dance tunes and fantasias, but is
chiefly remembered for his melancholy songs, in which
chromaticism and discord are used to great effect.
Drake, Sir Francis (c. 1540–1596) English sea captain
and popular hero of the Elizabethan age
Drake first became rich and famous through his exploits
against Spain in the Caribbean (1567–68) and in 1572 he
received a royal commission as a privateer. With ELIZA-
BETH I’s support he led the first English expedition to cir-
cumnavigate the world (1577–80), bringing back with
him on the Golden Hind a rich cargo of treasure and spices
seized from the Spaniards. The queen recognized the feat
by coming on board his ship to knight him. In 1585 Drake
led another successful expedition against Spain in the
New World, and in 1587 his raid on CÁDIZ(“singeing the
king of Spain’s beard”) cost the Spaniards thousands of
tons of shipping and supplies. Drake played a prominent
part in the defeat of the SPANISH ARMADA(1588). He died
of fever off Panama, while leading yet another attack on
Spain’s overseas empire.
Further reading: R. Samuel Bawlf, The Secret Voyage
of Sir Francis Drake, 1577–1580 (New York: Walker,
2003).drama See COMEDY; COMMEDIA DELL’ARTE; COMMEDIA ERU-
DITA; INTERLUDE; MASQUE; PASTORAL; SACRA RAPPRESEN-
TAZIONE; THEATERS; TRAGEDYdrawing In Europe, drawing as an independent art form
arrived with the availability of paper during the early Re-
naissance and was coincident with a change in artistic
style. Prior to the 15th century, composition was strongly
conventional, both in subject and form. Every workshop
used a model-book—a collection of figures, motifs, and
outline compositions that were to be copied. Very much a
working tool, the model-book would be passed from mas-
ter to pupil, from workshop to workshop, and, when worn
out, thrown away. Consequently, few model-books survive
today. Likewise, drawings of this early period tended to
disappear under finished work. When materials were ex-
pensive and paper a rarity, trial sketches were made on
wax tablets or on slates, to be later erased. Even as paper
gradually became more available, and artists were enabled
to make more trial studies before beginning a painting,
these studies were still commonly considered to be of no
value and were usually thrown out.
The International Gothic style of the 14th century
broke with traditional forms and moved toward freer artis-
tic expression; artists in the new style tended to guard
their model-books more jealously and keep them as
records of their own innovations and experimentation. A
fundamental change in this period, one that underlies the
whole concept of “renaissance,” was that artists began to
take forms and figures from life, rather than copying pre-
vious works and models.
The sketchbook of Giovannino de’ Grassi (1390; Bib-
lioteca Ciivica, Bergamo) shows what were perhaps the
first representations of real animals since antiquity. In thisddrraawwiinngg 1 14477