Glossary677Jacobins. Radical leaders of the French Revolution who
drew their name from a former monastery where they met;
they initially championed constitutional freedoms and a
republic instead of a monarchy, but later directed the reign
of terror.
Passive Citizens. The portion of the population of France,
under the Constitution of 1791, who enjoyed all civil rights of
citizenship but did not pay enough taxes to qualify for the right
to vote or hold office.
Reign of Terror. The thirteen-month period of the French
Revolution during 1793–1794 when radical revolutionaries held
a virtual dictatorship and executed thousands of opponents of
the regime, most famously 2.700 people executed on the
guillotine in Paris.
Thermidorean Reaction The overthrow of the reign of terror,
the execution of its leaders, and the establishment of a
conservative republic during the summer of 1794, named for the
mid-summer month in the revolutionary calendar.
Chapter 22
Agricultural Revolution. The significant improvement of
European agriculture, beginning in 18th century Britain, where
more intensive and extensive use of the soil sharply improved
the food supply, sustaining population growth.
Cottage Industry. A traditional form of handcraft manufacture
of textiles in rural regions during the Old Regime; spinning and
weaving were done by individuals in their homes, typically with
raw materials provided by a middleman who bought the finished
cloth and marketed it.
Enclosure. The process of enclosing open fields of farm land,
often shared for common use, within walls or fences and
assigning them to a single owner, especially in Britain, 1700–
1850; the change led to greater agricultural production, but to
the failure of many small farmers.
Family Wage Economy. Economists’ term to describe the
relationship of working families to the economy during
industrialization; low wages dictated that all members of a
family work at wage-paying jobs away from home and pool
their earnings.
Industrial Revolution. General term for the transformation of
an economy from a predominantly rural and agricultural base to
a predominantly urban and industrial-manufacturing base;
specific term for the first such transformation, which occurred in
Britain c. 1750–1850.
Laissez-faire Capitalism. The economic doctrine advocated by
manufacturers and industrialists, especially in Britain, during the
industrial revolution; it held that governments should not regulate
the economy, but leave individuals free to act as they saw best.
Take-off Phase Economists’ term for the period when a
nascent industrial economy begins to expand rapidly, leading to
an industrial society.Vital Revolution A major demographic shift in which the
death rate declined sharply and life expectancy steadily
increased, due to the steady improvement of diet and the
gradual conquest of contagious disease.
Zollverein Prussian-led customs union linking states of
northern Germany in the early 19th century which promoted
free trade, stimulating economic development and enhancing
the Prussian position in Germany.Chapter 23
Adulterated Food. A widespread scandal of the unregulated
economy of the 19th century, in which many foods were mixed
with cheap extenders in order to increase profits, such as putting
powdered clay in cocoa.
Antisepsis. A medical term, coined after acceptance of the
germ theory of disease transmission, to describe conditions in
which the growth and multiplication of microorganisms has
been inhibited; initially achieved by Joseph Lister’s use of a
carbolic acid mist.
Cholera. An acute diarrheal disease caused by microorganisms
usually transmitted through contaminated drinking water which
was the most persistent epidemic disease of 19th century Europe.
Double Standard. A widespread Victorian attitude about
human sexuality, imbedded in the law as well as in middle class
standards, in which different sexual behavior was expected of
(and allowed to) men and of women
Laudanum. The Latin name (“highly praised”) for a tincture of
opium dissolved in alcohol, which was an unregulated and a
very widely consumed pain killer until the drug laws of the 20th
century.
Neo-Malthusians. Reformers who advocated birth control and
education about it as a means of curbing the population
explosion, improving the life of women, and easing the
economic burden on poor families.
Vaccination. A form of inoculation against smallpox
developed by Edward Jenner in 1796, in which people were
administered a small amount of cowpox virus which conferred
immunity to smallpox. Widespread use of the technique
gradually led to the elimination of smallpox.
Victorianism. A term used to imply a stereotype of 19th
century prudery and repressiveness about human sexuality.Chapter 24
Congress System. The system of regular meetings of leaders
of the great powers following the Congress of Vienna, in an
effort to cooperate in maintaining the international order
established at Vienna.
Corn Laws. British laws regulating, through high tariffs, the
importation of corn (grain) into Britain, in order to protect the
interests of land owners.