678GlossaryFeminism. The modern name for the 19th-century doctrine
and movement for the equal rights of women; the doctrine
sought integral equality, but initially stressed economic,
educational, legal, and political rights.
Habeas Corpus. The traditional Latin words (“you shall have
the body”) at the start of a writ; the right of habeas corpus is the
right of a citizen to obtain such a writ as protection against
illegal imprisonment.
Legitimacy. The doctrine stated by the victorious allies of
1814–15 for the restoration of the old order in Europe after
Napoleon’s conquests; it asserted that every region had a
“legitimate” ruler who should be restored to the throne, such as
Bourbon restoration in France.
Liberalism. The name coined in the early 19th century for the
political and economic doctrine that emphasized individual
freedoms (such as free speech in politics and free trade in
economics) and opposed state restrictions of such liberties;
sometimes called “classical liberalism” to distinguish it from later
versions of liberalism.
Nationalism. The political doctrine developed in the 19th
century to assert the collective rights of a nation, which was
understood to be defined by a shared language, culture, history
or religion; the doctrine initially sought the independence and
the unity of a nation.
Romanticism. The European cultural reaction to the
neoclassicism of the 18th century—a rejection of strict artistic
rules and an artistic rediscovery of feelings, emotions, and the
spirit in contrast to strict reason.
Socialism. A group of political and economic doctrines that
stressed the creation of social and economic equality; 19th
century varieties included Christian, democratic, revolutionary,
and utopian doctrines.
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Anarchism. A political theory asserting that all forms of
government are unnecessary and should be abolished, to be
replaced by a society based on cooperation and free association.
Barricades. A characteristic feature of urban riots and
revolutions, especially in France; residents of a district close
streets by building mounds of overturned vehicles, furniture
from nearby buildings, and trees, defying the government to
attack them.
Class Struggle. A central theory of Marxism, in which
inevitable conflict between social classes (such as the property
owning bourgeoisieand the laboring proletariat) explains great
historical changes.
Combination Acts. A type of legislation (association laws in
many countries) by which governments limited the right of
citizens to combine (or associate) in groups, such as clubs,
political parties, or trade unions; governments required
authorization for such groups, declaring some illegal.
Deference. The central concept in many interpretations of
Victorian Britain: that the mass of the population recognized the
superior position of the upper classes and deferred to their
leadership.
Intelligentsia. Intellectuals from many different fields who
collectively form an elite, and sometimes act as the vanguard of
artistic, political, or social movements.
Marxism. A radical form of socialism propounded by Karl
Marx, encompassing a broad social, economic, and political
critique of capitalist society and advocating a workers’
revolution to seize power and institute dramatic reforms such as
the abolition of private property.
Realpolitik. German term meaning “a policy of realism,” used
to describe political policies developed on pragmatic or
opportunistic grounds rather than being defined by ideology or
a predetermined program.Chapter 26
Bolshevik(s). Russian word meaning “member of the majority,”
appropriated by Lenin in 1903 to identify his supporters within
the Russian social democratic party, although they were actually
a minority; later used as a synonym for Communist.
Commune. The smallest territorial division in the
administrative structure of France, roughly equivalent to a town;
the term has been borrowed to describe famous municipal
governments, notably the radical Paris Commune of 1871.
Home Rule. The political doctrine holding that the citizens of
a region (or country, or colony) should be allowed to govern
themselves, especially in local matters; often used specifically for
the campaign (c. 1870–1914) for the devolution of the
government of Ireland.
Impressionism. Avant-garde style of painting originating in
France in 1860s–1880s that sought to represent the overall
visual impression that a subject made rather than to create a
detailed reproduction of the subject.
Papal Infallibility. The Roman Catholic doctrine,
promulgated by the Vatican Council of 1869–1870, that the
pope infallibly expresses the will of God, when he speaks
(1) “ex cathedra” (from the throne of St. Peter’s) and (2) on
matters of faith and morals.
Pogrom. Russian term for an organized, officially tolerated,
attack upon members of a minority; especially attacks on Jewish
communities.
Second Industrial Revolution. A stage in the industrialization
of the western civilization, reached by the most advanced states
(such as Britain and Germany) in the late 19th century, when
steel began to replace iron at the center of heavy industry,
electricity to replace steam as a power source, and the chemical
industry challenged the preeminence of textiles.
Social Darwinism. A nineteenth social theory which used a
crude version of Darwin’s principle of natural selection (usually