Structure of Early Civilization h 67Egyptian society was composed of a number of defi ned social classes. Within this
social structure, however, commoners could enter government service and rise in social
status. Egyptian families were patriarchal, with men dominating households and commu-
nity life. Among the royalty, however, women sometimes acted as regents for young rulers
or as priestesses. Other educated women worked as scribes for the Egyptian government.
The Egyptians did not acquire the use of bronze tools and weapons until long after
they had reached Mesopotamia. From the Nubian kingdom of Kush, a site of the inde-
pendent innovation of ironworking, the Egyptians acquired iron implements.
The Egyptians engaged in some trade with the people of Mesopotamia and later with
the kingdom of Kush to the south. Some historians believe that Egyptian picture writing,
or hieroglyphics, was developed from Sume rian cuneiform as a result of trade contacts
with Mesopotamia. Cultural diffusion from Egypt produced a Nubian civilization that
incorporated Egyptian pyramids, writing, and religion into its own culture. In addition,
the Nubian kingdom of Kush invaded Egypt in the eighth century b.c.e. and ruled the
Egyptian people for about a century. Throughout most of its early history, however, sur-
rounding deserts protected Egypt from contact with invading peoples, permitting its civi-
lization to develop its own, unique characteristics.The Indus Valley Civilization
By 2500 b.c.e., another advanced civilization had emerged along the Indus River in
present-day Pakistan. Like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Indus River was noted for
its unpredictable and often violent pattern of fl ooding. Among the urban centers that arose
along the Indus were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Streets in both cities were laid out along
a precise grid, and houses boasted running water and sewage systems.
Much of what historians know about the Indus valley civilization must come from
archeological discoveries, because Harappan writing has yet to be deciphered. Archeological
fi ndings of Harappan artifacts in Meso potamia indicate active trade between the peoples of
the Indus valley and Sumer by way of the Persian Gulf. Around 1500 b.c.e., the Harappan
civilization was overtaken by a group of Indo-European peoples called Aryans. The Harap-
pan civilization which the Aryans conquered had already declined markedly, perhaps as a
result of rivers changing their course or a natural disaster such as an earthquake. The blend
of the traditional culture of the Indus valley people and that of the Aryans had a profound
effect on the future course of Indian history.Backgrounds of Classical India
The roots of classical India began during the invasions of the Aryans about 1500 b.c.e.
From their original home in Central Asia, the Aryans brought a tradition of hunting and
cattle-herding; after their arrival in South Asia, however, they adapted the agricultural
methods of native peoples. Aryan iron tools facilitated their success in agriculture.
Although the people of the Harappan civilization of the Indus valley possessed a
written language, the Aryans did not. Much of our knowledge of the Aryans comes from
their oral epics, called the Vedas. The Vedas were later written down in the Sanskrit lan-
guage, which remains a prominent language in India today. The infl uence of the Vedas is
evident in the term applied to the early classical period of Indian culture, the Vedic Age
(1500–1000 b.c.e.). The fi rst Aryan epic, the Rig-Veda, is a collection of hymns in honorhttp://www.ebook3000.com