68 i PERIOD 1 Technological and Environmental Transformations (to c. 600 B.C.E.)
of the Aryan gods. Other epic literature which shaped Indian culture during the Epic Age
(1000–600 b.c.e.) includes the Rama yana, the Mahabharata (considered the greatest epic
poem of India), and the Upanishads, a collection of religious epic poems.Aryan Society
Aryan society was based on a village organization composed of families with patriarchal
control. Their society was further organized along a class system. When they invaded the
Indus valley, the Aryans, who were fair-complexioned compared to the native people they
conquered, perceived the people of the Indus valley as inferior. Therefore, they modifi ed
the class system with which they were already familiar in their society to defi ne the new
relationship between conqueror and conquered. Society was divided into four distinct
classes, or varna, based on skin color:- Kshatriyas, or warriors and rulers
- Brahmins, or priests
- Vaisyas, or merchants and farmers
- Sudras, or common workers
The fi rst three classes were composed of Aryans, the fourth of the Dra vidians, or the
native people of India whom the Aryans encountered at the time of their invasion. During
the Epic Age, the fi rst two classes reversed in order of importance. At the very bottom of
the social structure was a classless group of untouchables. Members of this group were
involved in occupations perceived as distasteful, such as handling waste products, carrying
out the dead, or butchering animals. As the classes became hereditary they became castes,
or rigid social classes that seldom permitted social mobility. Within each caste were numer-
ous subcastes, or jati, that further defi ned Indian society.
The Aryans also introduced to Indian culture their own array of gods and goddesses.
Part of their belief system was the veneration of some animals, particularly cattle.The Shang
The most isolated of the four river valley civilizations was that of the Huang He valley in
present-day China. Although the people of the Huang He valley dwelled in a region iso-
lated by deserts, mountains (the Hima layas), and seas, they did engage in some trade with
Southwest Asia and South Asia.
The earliest Chinese dynasty that left written records was the Shang dynasty (1766–
112 2 b.c.e.). A key element of the Shang period was the knowledge of bronze metallurgy.
This knowledge, which came to China from Southwest Asia by means of Indo-European
migrations, strengthened the Shang war machine. Around 1000 b.c.e., the Shang also
became familiar with ironworking. Shang rule was further empowered by the need for
central rule to oversee irrigation and fl ood-control projects along the Huang He River.
During the Shang period, a number of walled cities arose. These urban areas served as
cultural, military, and economic centers. Elaborate palaces and tombs were built for Shang
rulers.
Examples of early Chinese writing are apparent from a custom of divination using
oracle bones. When a person sought the advice of the gods on an issue, he or she would
visit an oracle, who would scratch the person’s question on an animal bone or shell, then
heat it. When the oracle bone cracked from the heat, the oracle read the cracks to determine
the message from the gods.