Contents xxi8 Early Homo and the Origins of Culture
of Culture 172The Discovery of the First Stone Toolmaker 174
Sex, Gender, and the Behavior of Early Homo 175
Hunters or Scavengers? 177
Brain Size and Diet 179
Homo erectus 180
Fossils of Homo erectus 180
Physical Characteristics of Homo erectus 181
Relationship among Homo erectus, Homo habilis, and Other
Proposed Fossil Groups 183
Homo erectus from Africa 183
Homo erectus Entering Eurasia 183
Homo erectus from Indonesia 184
Homo erectus from China 184
Homo erectus from Western Europe 185
The Culture of Homo erectus 186
Acheulean Tool Tradition 186
Use of Fire 187
Hunting 188
Other Evidence of Complex Thought 188
The Question of Language 189
Archaic Homo sapiens and the Appearance of
Modern-Sized Brains 190
Levalloisian Technique 191
Other Cultural Innovations 191
The Neandertals 192
Javanese, African, and Chinese Archaic Homo sapiens 194
Middle Paleolithic Culture 195
Mousterian Tool Tradition 195
The Symbolic Life of Neandertals 197
Speech and Language in the Middle Paleolithic 198
Culture, Skulls, and Modern Human Origins 200Biocultural Connection: Sex, Gender, and Female
Paleoanthropologists 176
Original Study: Humans as Prey 178
Anthropology Applied: Stone Tools for Modern Surgeons 196Questions for Reflection 200
Suggested Readings 200Chapter 9 The Global Expansion of Homo
sapiens and Their Technology 202Upper Paleolithic Peoples: The First Modern Humans 204
The Human Origins Debate 205
The Multiregional Hypothesis 206
The Recent African Origins or “Eve” Hypothesis 206
Reconciling the Evidence 207
The Genetic Evidence 209
The Anatomical Evidence 2096 Macroevolution and the Early Primates
Primates 122Macroevolution and the Process of Speciation 124
Constructing Evolutionary Relationships 127
The Nondirectedness of Macroevolution 127
Continental Drift and Geologic Time 130
Early Mammals 130
The Rise of the Primates 130
True Primates 133
Oligocene Anthropoids 134
New World Monkeys 136
Miocene Apes 136
Miocene Apes and Human Origins 140Original Study: Melding Heart and Head 129
Biocultural Connection: Why “Ida” Inspires Navel-Gazing
at Our Ancestry 135
Anthropologist of Note: Allan Wilson 139Questions for Reflection 142
Suggested Readings 1427 Th e First Bipeds
The Anatomy of Bipedalism 146
Ardipithecus 148
Australopithecus 150
The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity 152
Diverse Australopithecine Species 152
East Africa 152
Central Africa 158
South Africa 158
Robust Australopithecines 159
Australopithecines and the Genus Homo 162
Environment, Diet, and Origins of the Human Line 162
Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet 163
Early Representatives of the Genus Homo 167
Lumpers or Splitters? 168
Differences Between Early Homo and
Australopithecus 169Anthropologists of Note: Louis S. B. Leakey and MaryMary Leakey
Original Study: Ankles of the Australopithecines 155
Biocultural Connection: Evolution and Human Birth 165Questions for Reflection 170
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