Evolution And History

Methods and Ethics in Primatology 55

teaching them to communicate through pictures on a com-

puter screen or with American Sign Language. Of course,

even compassionate captivity imposes stress on primates.

Still, the knowledge gained through these studies will con-

tribute ultimately to primate conservation and survival.

At first glance it might seem that it is inherently more

humane to work with animals in the field than in captiv-

ity. But even field studies raise important ethical issues for

primatologists to consider. Primatologists must maintain

an awareness of how their presence affects the behavior of

the group. For example, does becoming tolerant of human

observers make the primates more vulnerable? Primates

habituated to humans commonly range beyond established

wilderness preserves and come in close contact with other

humans who may be more interested in hunting than ob-

servation. Contact between animals and humans can also

expose endangered primates to infectious diseases carried

by humans. Whether working with primates in captivity

or in the field, primatologists seriously consider the well-

being of the primates they study. Primalotogist Michelle

Goldsmith explores these issues in depth in this chapter’s

Original Study.

has devoted her career to in-depth observation of chim-
panzees in their natural habitat. While documenting the
range and nuance of chimpanzee behavior, she has also
championed primate habitat conservation and humane
treatment of primates in captivity. This philosophy of con-
servation and preservation has led to further innovations
in primate research methods. For example, primatologists
have developed a number of noninvasive methods that
allow them to link primate biology and behavior in the
field, while minimizing physical disruption. Primatolo-
gists gather hair, feces, or other body secretions left by the
primates in the environment for later analysis in the labo-
ratory. These analyses provide valuable information about
characteristics such as dietary habits or genetic relatedness
among a group of individuals.
Work with captive animals provides more than knowl-
edge about the basic biology of primates. It has also al-
lowed primatologists to document the “humanity” of our
closest living relatives. Many of the amazing linguistic and
conceptual abilities of primates became known through
captive animal studies. Individual primatologists have de-
voted their careers to working with primates in captivity,

Original Study

Ethics of Great Ape Habituation and Conservation: The Costs

and Benefits of Ecotourism by Michele Goldsmith

For the past ten years I have been study-

ing the impact of habituation for the pur-

pose of ecotourism on mountain gorillas

living in Bwindi Impenetrable National

Park, Uganda. “Habituation” refers to the

acceptance by wild animals of a human

observer as a neutral element in their en-

vironment. Habituation allows the natural

behavior of a species to be observed and

documented. Although information from

habituated primates has been instrumen-

tal in providing a wealth of information

for research and conservation, little at-

tention has been given to the costs these

animals bear when their fear of humans is

removed. As a behavioral ecologist, great

ape researcher, and conservationist, I am

interested in how their lack of fear of hu-

mans influences both their behavior and

their well-being.

All great apes are listed as “en-

dangered species,” and some subspe-

cies (such as the mountain gorilla or

Gorilla gorilla beringei) are “critically

endangered.”a Therefore, attempts at

research and conservation, such as eco-

tourism, should improve local population

numbers and conditions.

Although I study how habituation

influences primate behavior, it is impor-

tant to note that even the habituation

process itself impacts primate behavior.

For example, during the habituation pro-

cess, a group of western lowland gorillas

exhibited fear in their vocalizations,

increased their aggressive behavior, and

changed their daily ranging pattern.b

Such stress can lead to loss of reproduc-

tive function and a weakened immune

system. The process can also be danger-

ous to the people performing the habitu-

ation process as many of them have

been charged, bitten, and hit.

Unfortunately, gorillas are still

hunted for a number of reasons. Gorillas

who have lost their fear of humans are

especially vulnerable. Five Bwindi goril-

las habituated for research were killed

by poachers in order to capture a young

infant gorilla. Babies are sold through

illegal trade channels. In addition, hu-

mans have also brought great instabil-

ity and warfare to areas where gorilla

populations live. Sudden evacuation of

research and tourist sites leaves behind

habituated gorillas who become easy tar-

gets for the poacher’s gun.

With regard to long-term changes in

ecology and behavior, my research has

shown that the diet, nesting, and rang-

ing patterns of habituated gorilla groups

are different from other “wild” gorillas

in the same study area. The Nkuringo

group, habituated in 1998 for tourism

that started in 2004, lives near the edge

Michele L. Goldsmith/Photograph © Katherine Hope

Primatologist Michele Goldsmith making

observations of gorillas in the field.

CONTINUED