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they emphasize the role of social interaction in learning (Windschitl, 2002). Cognitive constructivists
focus predominantly on the individual learner’s cognitive processes (Steffe, 1992; Ernst von Glasersfeld,
1993). Although most constructivists in this camp certainly acknowledge that social interactions are very
important, their explanatory accounts of learning focus primarily on knowledge construction of the
individual. The developmental psychologist, Jean Piaget, whom you will read about in Chapter 3
(Cognitive Development), belongs to this camp. Social constructivists emphasize that learning occurs
during social interactions (J. S. Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Learning occurs best (or only) when
learners are constructing ideas collaboratively in group or class discussions. Lev Vygotsky, another
developmental psychologist that you will read about in Chapter 3, is a key theorist in this broad camp.
You will encounter many instructional methods based on social constructivist ideas throughout this text.
Many constructivists explicitly adopt a pragmatist philosophy (see van Fraassen, 1980, 2003; E.
von Glasersfeld, 1989; Ernst von Glasersfeld, 1993). According to this philosophy, there is no reason to
expect that our ideas correspond to the world around us. For example, although scientists have developed
a theory that matter is composed of molecules and atoms, pragmatists insist that there is no reason to think
that this theory corresponds to the world at large. They would never say that the world is made of
molecules; rather, pragmatists would say that molecular theory enables us to make accurate predictions.
They would view molecules as a useful conceptual tool invented by humans to try to make sense of the
world. Thus, according to pragmatists, knowledge really is invented or constructed by humans. According
to constructivists, all learners are like scientists. Learners of all ages construct knowledge that is useful to
them in explaining events in the world and making predictions. According to constructivists, learners’
ideas are creative inventions built by learners to explain and predict events.
Core Principles of Constructivism
In this section, we will introduce you to eight core principles of constructivism with which most
constructivists would agree. Although this is only an initial introduction to this theory, constructivism will
recur as a major theme in most subsequent chapters throughout this text.
These eight principles fall into three general categories (see Figure 2.10). Constructivists make
claims about (1) how learners learn, (2) how learning environments should be designed to promote
learning, and (3) the role of others in learning. To illustrate these constructivist principles, we will expand
on our example of Rachel learning about lobsters. Let us now imagine that Rachel and her class are
learning not just about lobsters, but more generally about ecosystems, including lobsters and other
crustaceans as well as other components of the ecosystem.