M

MAINSTREAMING

Mainstreaming is the original term used for the re-
quirement under the Individuals with Disabilities Ed-
ucation Act (IDEA) that children with disabilities be
educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE).
Under IDEA, states must assure that, to the maximum
extent appropriate, children ages three to twenty-one
who have disabilities have access to the general educa-
tion curriculum and are educated with children with-
out disabilities (for infants and toddlers, early
intervention services must be provided in natural en-
vironments where age peers are typically found).

The term ‘‘mainstreaming’’ commonly refers to
the integration of a child with a disability in regular
education settings for part of the school day. As legal
and social interpretations of IDEA have evolved, the
term ‘‘mainstreaming’’ has been superceded by the
term ‘‘inclusion,’’ reflecting a new understanding of
LRE that presumes full participation of children with
disabilities in regular education settings while ensur-
ing continuum of participation options based on a
child’s educational and social needs.

See also: DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES; MENTAL
RETARDATION

Bibliography
Accardo, Pasquale J., and Barbara Y. Whitman, eds. Dictionary of
Developmental Disabilities Terminology. Baltimore: Paul H.
Brookes, 1996.
Erwin, Elizabeth J., ed. ‘‘The Promise and Challenge of Supporting
All Children in Natural Environments.’’ Putting Children First:
Visions for a Brighter Future for Young Children and Their Fami-
lies. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1996.

Hocutt, Anne M. ‘‘Effectiveness of Special Education: Is Placement

a Critical Factor?’’ The Future of Children vol. 6, no. 1

(1996):77–99.

Rogers, Joy. ‘‘The Inclusion Revolution.’’ In Phi Delta Kappa Cen-

ter for Evaluation, Development, and Research [web site]. Re-

search Bulletin no. 11, May 1993. Available from http://

http://www.pdkintl.org/edres/resbul11.htm: INTERNET.

Turnbull, H. Rutherford III, and Ann P. Turnbull. ‘‘Least Restric-

tive Appropriate Educational Placement.’’ In Free Appropriate

Public Education: The Law and Children with Disabilities. Denver:

Love Publishing, 2000.

Donna M. Noyes-Grosser

MALNUTRITION

Malnutrition refers to any condition caused by excess

or deficient food energy, protein, or nutrient intake,

or by an imbalance of nutrients. Nutrient or energy

deficiencies are classified as forms of undernutrition;

nutrient or energy excesses are forms of overnutri-

tion. Malnutrition can take two forms: primary, due

to a lack, excess, or imbalance of a nutrient or nutri-

ents in the diet; and secondary, which occurs as a re-

sult of a disease or illness that affects dietary intake,

nutrient needs, or metabolism. Historically, the most

common nutrient-related problems among U.S. chil-

dren are obesity, iron-deficiency anemia, and dental

cavities. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM), a prob-

lem in developing countries, is not common in the

United States but can occur secondary to trauma, dis-

ease, psychological problems, or medical treatment.

PEM occurs in two forms: marasmus, in which the de-

ficiency is primarily in energy-providing foods, and

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