Further reading: Ruhallah Khomeini, Islam and Revo-
lution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini.
Translated by Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan
Press, 1981); Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival: How Conflicts
within Islam Will Shape the Future (New York: W.W.
Norton, 2007); Ali Rahnema, “Khomeini’s Search for
Perfection: Theory and Reality.” In Pioneers of Islamic
Revival, edited by Ali Rahnema, 64–97 (London: Zed
Books, 2005).
khums See shiism.
khutba See sermon.
Koran See quran.
kufr See kafir.
kuttab (Arabic: writing school)
A traditional Islamic qUran school providing
elementary levels of edUcation, the kuttab is also
sometimes known as a maktab, though occasion-
ally the two had separate functions. The kuttab
curriculum consisted primarily of memorizing the
Quran and learning the fundamentals of Islamic
belief and practice. But it could also include study
of Arabic grammar, Arabic or Persian classical
poetry, and basic arithmetic. Instruction was cen-
tered on memorization through dictation, writ-
ing, and recitation, with little or no teaching time
devoted to the meaning of the texts.
In the Middle Ages only a minority of boys
from the ages of about four to 10 were given the
opportunity to study at a kuttab. In most regions
and periods, girls were excluded from attending,
but this situation changed in the 19th and 20th
centuries. Upper-class and elite families usually
hired tutors to teach their children at home, but
kuttabs were, by the early modern period, almost
universally available to educate the poor and
middle classes. A kuttab was often established as
a charitable trust (waqf). The kuttab education
could lead to further studies in the Islamic educa-
tion system of jami halqas, or mosqUe teaching
circles, and madrasas, or institutions of higher
learning for students who proved their ability.
But most students probably ended their education
after the kuttab and were left with little more than
the ability to recite portions of complex literary
Arabic they were unlikely to comprehend, in the
case of Arabic and non-Arabic speakers alike.
However, they would have been well prepared to
perform their ritual duties as Muslims.
This institution developed very early in the
Islamic period and spread widely in the wake
of the Arab-Islamic conquests. It was important
in all Islamicate lands, serving as the initial
introduction to education as well as playing an
important role in Islamization. The kuttab was
a key feature of Islamicate civilization for many
centuries; however, educational reforms from
the mid-19th century to the present day have
increasingly led to its decline. The functions of
the kuttab were largely taken over by public,
state-funded educational systems. In states where
primary education was not universally provided
until late in the 20th century, such as libya, saUdi
arabia, and yemen, the kuttab remained the only
source of education available in rural areas. The
kuttab has been revived in some regions where
the educational system has been completely
secularized, for example, by Indian Muslims after
partition (1947) and in algeria during the 1930s.
In some states, such as egypt and morocco,
the kuttab was modified and integrated into the
national school system or it remains as an impor-
tant alternative to the Islamic education provided
in the public schools.
See also literacy.
Shauna HuffakerFurther reading: Ahmad Shalaby, History of Muslim
Education (Beirut: Dar al-Kashshaf, 1954); Gregorykuttab 437 J