1036 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MAN’S ENVIRONMENT
MAN’S SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTDecisions made regarding the physical environment have
implications for social aspects of behavior, as we have seen
in the previous section. In addition, some areas of environ-
mental concern, such as urban planning, must consider man’s
psychological and social environment more or less explic-
itly. Population growth, for example, is greatly affected by
social attitudes, as the dramatic change in the birth rate in
Japan after World War II shows.
The social sciences, including psychology, have roles as
information sources and in providing techniques for imple-
menting decisions about the social environment, especially
where these involve inducing changes in human behavior
patterns. A vast amount of research has gone into the study
of social factors which influence human behavior, and much
of this information may be relevant in certain areas of envi-
ronmental planning. Psychological techniques can be used
to gain information about people’s needs and preferences. It
is not easy to design questionnaires which will provide reli-
able answers and many problems arise in obtaining repre-
sentative samples of the target population. Psychologists and
sociologists have studied these problems extensively. A great
deal is known today about proper sampling techniques for
such studies. General answers to designing questionnaires
are more difficult to come by, but extensive experience has
provided some useful practical advice. It appears likely that
many difficulties which have arisen in the past in connec-
tion with such matters as public housing in urban areas, have
been due in part to a failure to accurately assess the feelings
and concerns of those affected by such projects. More exten-
sive use of survey techniques might eliminate some of these
problems.
Certain reservations about research on man’s social envi-
ronment should be mentioned, however. Large scale experi-
mentation is obviously very difficult to do, and so reliance
must often be placed on field studies. Direct measurement of
behavior may be difficult, so recourse may be made to rating
scales and other indirect measures whose relation to actual
behavior is often uncertain. Smaller scale experiments often
introduce varying degrees of unreality into a situation which
may make generalization to the real world situation difficult.
While all of these comments apply in some degree to all psy-
chological research, they are especially apt to apply in areas
relevant to man’s social environment.
Any discussion of man’s social environment must
also consider areas in which psychological techniques can
be employed to alter behavior. Consider, for example, the
impact of problems such as crime, drug addiction, and so
forth. on urban planning. Informational aspects of these
problems certainly exist. For example, what is the evidence
for a relationship between juvenile delinquency and housing
conditions? Such questions have been extensively studied,
and while the answers are still being debated, a great deal of
information is available on observed correlations.
However, in addition to such informational aspects, the
question of the role of psychologists in dealing with such ques-
tions must be considered. Plans must be made for dealing withsuch problems, and this means that resources must be allocated
to them. Obviously, the proper allocations must depend in part
on available options and their effectiveness. It is therefore rea-
sonable to ask what techniques psychologists have available
for modifying behavior and to inquire into their effectiveness.
A number of techniques, generally classified as psycho-
therapies, have been developed to deal with neurotic behav-
iors. It is difficult to characterize these procedures in any
simple way, since they have diverse theoretical roots and prac-
tical implementation, but in general they depend on verbal
interactions between therapist and patient to effect change.
A number of variations on the classic one-to-one patient–
therapist relationship have developed in recent years. Various
forms of group therapy have developed. In addition, sensi-
tivity training procedures have been developed. These are
usually aimed at changing the behavior of those not consid-
ered to be suffering from any personality disturbance, and
they are likely to involve varying degrees of role playing and
direct confrontation.
The effectiveness of psychotherapies has long been a
matter of debate and the question has not yet been resolved.
Difficulties in evaluating them in regard to neurotic behav-
iors stem from the high spontaneous remission rates, the dif-
ficulties of diagnosis, and the problems of defining what is
meant by a cure and determining when one has occurred.
The record with regard to disorders such as psychopathic
personality, drug addiction, etc., is even less optimistic. Very
little evidence of effectiveness is available, and many reports
are discouraging.
The situation is similar for sensitivity training procedures
and group therapy. While enthusiastic reports can be found,
so can negative reports. Especially disturbing are reports of
undesirable reactions to some kinds of sensitivity training,
which can be rather aversive.
To those familiar with other health areas, these problems
of evaluation may seem surprising. Clinical research has a
long history in medicine, after all, and while problems such
as placebo effects exist, methods have been developed to
overcome them. However, in addition to the usual problems
associated with any clinical research, much of the research
on psychotherapies suffer from severe underlying problems
associated with the entire concept of mental illness. Szasz
has gone so far as to deny the utility of the concept, and
has developed some interesting analogies between the con-
cept of mental illness and the concept of witchcraft during
the Middle Ages. While his views are hardly universally
accepted, it is clear that the problems go beyond the merely
procedural.
Behavior therapies, derived from conditioning techniques
fare somewhat better. Classical conditioning techniques have
had some success with alcoholics, though problems exist.
Operant condition techniques have been applied extensively
in the treatment of retardates, and have been used as the
basis of token economies in mental institutions and homes
for delinquents. It is usually somewhat easier to evaluate
the behavior therapies, in part because the specification of
the procedures in terms of reinforcement contingencies pro-
vides information about details of the process often lackingC016_012_r03.indd 1036C016_012_r03.indd 1036 11/18/2005 11:03:54 AM11/18/2005 11:03:54 AM