PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MAN’S ENVIRONMENT 1037
for other methods, and also because they focus on changing
behavior. Such changes in behavior can usually be measured
directly, whereas changes in personality or emotional state
must be measured indirectly, and the appropriate tests are
often uncertain. Behavior therapies are not invariably suc-
cessful, of course, and a current weakness of the procedures
is that it is difficult to establish systematic criteria for use.
Another problem which has been reported are unpredicted
effects on behaviors which were not under explicit control
by reinforcement. These changes are not necessarily nega-
tive, but since they were not under intentional stimulus con-
trol, they may create problems. Finally, these procedures are
relatively new, and the history of psychology is replete with
procedures whose early promise has not been fulfilled.
Although the major use of explicit control of behavior by
reinforcement contingencies has been in dealing with abnor-
mal behaviors, the principles are not limited to such applica-
tions. An interesting example of an application in a different
context is the use of reinforcement techniques to reduce lit-
tering behavior in theatres and campgrounds.
In addition to the techniques described above, psycholo-
gists and sociologists have been concerned with the effec-
tiveness of communication in changing behavior. Much
research has gone into such questions as the effect of the
status of a speaker on his persuasiveness, and the role of var-
ious social pressures in changing opinion. In a sense, much
educational research can be looked upon as the study of a
special kind of behavior control where the concern is with
inducing behaviors which result in learning in an educational
setting. Rothkopf has done some interesting experiments on
methods of inducing students to adopt appropriate behaviors
to facilitate learning, which he refers to as mathemagenic
behaviors.
In evaluating the usefulness of such techniques in the
design of the social environment, it is important to take cost-
effectiveness criteria into consideration. Judged by such cri-
teria, the more traditional psychotherapies do not come off
well. They require highly trained manpower, in a relatively
large supply, and effectiveness is questionable, especially in
situations where the cooperation of the target population is
in doubt. Modifications such as group therapy may dilute the
manpower requirements somewhat, but the other problems
remain. The behavior therapies show up somewhat better in
such an analysis. At least, it is possible to monitor behavior
change to determine whether they are effective, and once a
program has been established, it can often be carried out by
personnel with little formal training.
In evaluating psychology as an information source for
social planning, the need for sound information from the
behavioral sciences cannot be overstressed, and every effort
should be made to obtain more of such information. At the
same time, the many obvious limitations of our present data
suggest that they be used with due caution.
In particular, with the increasing use of psychological
consultants in various aspects of environmental planning,
the bases for various expert opinions should be scrutinized
with great care. The judgment of experts in the social sci-
ences, when it is not based on carefully controlled research,can be very misleading. The nature of the subject matter and
the conditions of observation are such that it is very easy to
find apparent support for a wide variety of hypotheses, many
of which may be proved incorrect with more careful obser-
vation. It is always desirable to ascertain the factual basis
for any recommendation, and to obtain the views of as many
professionals from different backgrounds as possible.FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSThe future cannot, of course, be predicted, but certain trends
seem likely to continue. First, techniques for controlling
behavior derived from operant conditioning procedures
appear likely to come into increasing use. Environmental
design will be likely to take into account more explicitly
such facts in its design procedures. Human engineering pro-
cedures will also have an increasing impact on aspects of
design for the environment. Certain fundamental questions
about human behavior in complex situations will become
better understood, and will provide the informational basis
for superior design of learning environments and other spe-
cial purpose environments. However, the 1984 or Brave New
World fears seem unjustified at present. The more extensive
attempts to control human behavior are more notable for
their weaknesses than their power. Even predictive power is
inversely associated with the behavioral complexity of the
response. Skinnerian techniques seem to offer the best road
at present to more powerful approaches. However even here
caution should be noted. Most of the basic research on cur-
rent contributions has been done on animals in very restricted
environments. It has also been done on animals in more or
less severe states of need; pigeon experiments using a food
reinforcement typically maintain the birds at some percent-
age of ad lib body weight, such as 85%. Such animals are
very well motivated, and the powerful effects of positive
reinforcements found in these studies should be interpreted
in this light. It is possible that most humans remain in a simi-
lar state of need with regard to the kinds of social reinforcers
most likely to be manipulated in planning of larger environ-
ments, but the point has yet to be established. The limited
environment is another factor which may lead to extensive
modification of conditioning principles in larger situations,
where a much wider choice of response alternative exist.
However, the positive value for effective use of environmen-
tal resources which can result from a better understanding of
human needs and response to various environments is very
great, and it is in this area that the greatest impact of psy-
chology should be anticipated.REFERENCESAlloway, Thomas M. (1969) Effects of low temperature upon acquisition
and retention in the grain beetle ( Tenebrio molitor ), J. Comparative and
Physiological Psychology, 69 , 1.
Alluisi, E.A. and W.D. Chiles (1967) Sustained performance, work–rest
scheduling, and diurnal rhythms in man, Acta Psychologica, 27 , 436.
American Public Health Association (1990) Standard Methods for the
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