sex; without it, people could not marry or have
socially sanctioned sexual activities, nor could
they have access to the secret or hidden informa-
tion that gave them the right to function as adults.
Thus, clitorectomy symbolized the death of the
girl and the emergence or rebirth of a new person—
the woman. As a result, females were believed to
experience greater fertility and more live births.
As a spiritual ritual, clitorectomy ceremonies were
performed as a significant rite of passage for
females. It has been described as an archetypical
activity of the ideal feminine. Clitorectomy was
considered a highly meaningful act that signified
the sacred symbolism of feminine fertility. It was
generally performed in sacred ceremonies by tra-
ditional female healer/practitioners or wives who
held high social status.
Some contemporary societies, however, have
provided for clitorectomy to be performed by
licensed medical personnel in hospitals and clinics.
Finally, the importance of traditional African cir-
cumcision rituals is indicated in literature, art, and
music, and the origins of circumcision are found
in many of the creation narratives of African soci-
eties. In one Yoruba creation narrative, the story
of Ogun and Olure, marriage and procreation
were facilitated through female circumcision.
Social ContextIt has been suggested that over time the major
religions external to traditional African societies
have contributed significantly to social and cul-
tural reinterpretations of the meaning of the
existing practice. For example, circumcision as a
practice in some African societies may have fused
Christianity with traditional ancient ideas about
spiritual purification. In societies where patri-
archy is the predominant social and political sys-
tem, clitorectomy is sustained. Some of the social
reasons for practicing clitorectomy today include
the effort to ensure premarital chastity (virginity)
among females. It was also believed that the
practice would help females maintain fidelity
during marriage. In addition, because of social
demands, both men and women believe that
female circumcision would increase a woman’s
marriage opportunities. It has also been sug-
gested that females who undergo circumcision
are viewed as courageous members of their com-
munities because of the pain associated with the
procedure. Furthermore, in societies that valued
fecundity, clitorectomy was thought to reverse
patterns of childlessness.
Long-established customs of marriage and
women’s roles have interpreted clitorectomy as a
paradigm of feminine modesty and an example
of upholding family honor. Proponents of cli-
torectomy, both male and female, have also sug-
gested that it is a protection against rape, a form
of birth control, and a means to reduce sexual
urges in young women. In modern society, it is
believed to preserve morality in an increasingly
sexualized atmosphere brought about by the
West. In some parts of the Islamic world, the
practice is calledsunna. A term for circumcision
(or the act of cutting) among the Yoruba isda’
ko, while excision is sometimes referred to as
dabo. The Bambara of Mali have practiced the
ceremonial cleansing known asseli ji. Among the
Zhosa in South Africa, the ritual initiation is
known as Umkhwetha.
Millions of women worldwide have experi-
enced some form of clitorectomy, and many
African countries continue the practice. It is part
of a system where social pressures converge with
a number of legacies associated with spirituality
and tradition. First, clitorectomy confers gender
identity among females. Second, it gives women
the perception of control and order, where
women’s power rests in the ideation of virtue.
Third, women who exercise this form of power
are thought to participate in sexual equality.
Fourth, as a form of social control, it asserts kin-
ship and a filial expression of ethnic identification.
Fifth, clitorectomy has been connected with a
higher social status in some societies.Opposition
Clitorectomy is a highly controversial practice in
many modern cultures. In contemporary society,
the practice is sometimes called female genital
mutilation (FGM). The custom is subject to a
major global campaign to end the practice and to
educate women about the health dangers. In par-
ticular, African women and many other activists
and scholars have brought this practice to the172 Clitorectomy