forefront in calling for its ban. It is often inter-
preted as a consequence of unequal male–female
relationships and women’s status in the societies
that continue to practice it. Opponents cite the
health dangers of the surgery and the patriarchal
implications inherent in the custom.
There are four major types of clitorectomy,
which range from the least cutting to a complete
surgical procedure. Type I involves cutting away
the clitoral foreskin and/or clitoris. The most
severe form of clitorectomy is calledPharaonic(or
in some areasSudanic) and involves the removal
of external genitalia and stitching of the vulva.
Scholars have asserted that clitorectomy is a life-
threatening procedure, especially when performed
in nonmedical and unsanitary environments.
Other health concerns have included generalized
genital pain, retardation of sexual development,
dyspareunia (painful sexual intercourse), vaginal
disorders, and medical complications that appear
later in life.
FGM opponents have placed the custom
within the context of human rights violations. It
has been compared to the Chinese practice of
foot binding. Clitorectomy is viewed as a form of
cruelty to the spiritual, physical, and psycholog-
ical female self. Opponents also argue that lan-
guage is critical to the contemporary discussion.
For example, they advise that female circumci-
sion is an incorrect term and that the experience
is not parallel to male circumcision. There is also
a movement among those interested in ending
the practice that focuses on and acknowledges
the process of cultural reformation. They note
that the practice is not found among all groups
of people and that there is a diminishing demar-
cation between those family groups that are cir-
cumcised and noncircumcised. They also have
advocated the development of alternative initia-
tion rites and other coming-of-age ceremonies,
which preserve the integrity of the meaning of
the act without performing the act. It is an exam-
ple of the embedded nature of some traditional
ideas that challenge the processes of cultural
reaffirmation and reorganization.
Many African nations have been in the fore-
front of eradicating the practice of clitorectomy.
Agencies such as Maendeleo ya Wanawake
(Kenya), Tostan (Senegal), and the Inter-African
Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the
Health of Women and Children (Ethiopia) are
among those many organizations dedicated to
ending clitorectomy and educating women and
the community about other concerns of women in
their societies.Katherine Olukemi BankoleSeealsoCircumcision; Health; Initiation; RitualsFurther Readings
Diop, C. A. (1974).The African Origin of Civilization:
Myth or Reality(M. Cook, Ed.). Chicago: Lawrence
Hill.
El Saadawi, N. (1999).A Daughter of Isis. London: Zed
Books.
Herbert, E. (1993).Iron, Gender and Power:Rituals of
Transformation in African Societies. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.
Lewnes, A. (Ed.). (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
Innocenti Digest(Inndig 05/37). New York, Florence:
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund.
Thiam, A. (1986).Black Sister,Speak Out:Feminism
and Oppression in Black Africa. London: Pluto Press.COLORSYMBOLISM
Color symbolism is especially important in Africa,
not just in terms of art or aesthetics, but in relation
to traditional spirituality and spiritual practices.
Unlike more recent Western esoteric analyses that
acknowledge the ability of particular colors to
elicit specific emotional responses, within most
African conceptualizations, colors are reflective of
specific life forces and, as such, are often relied on
and furthermore utilized in the manipulation of
cosmic energy. The use of particular colors in cer-
tain situations for specific purposes is believed to
release their intrinsic powers. Thus, extreme care is
taken to use and wear, as well as avoid, particular
colors on ritual occasions.
Throughout the Diaspora, the importance of
color symbolism can be witnessed through the rep-
resentations of various deities and the subsequent
ritual practices of their devotees. In Yoruba,Color Symbolism 173