Sasanian Empire, 12–13, 29, 66, 79–80, 108,
122, 131, 175
Satan, 13, 213
Saudi Arabia, 86, 147, 166, 170, 240–48,
257, 259–60
Saul of Tarsus, 64, 155–56
Sawdah (Muhammad’s wife), 64
Schacht, Joseph, 162, 163
Schubel, Vernon, 180
“Science of Kalam,” 150–51
Seal of the Prophets, 117, 182
secret books, 182
secularism, 258–59, 261–62
secularization, 261–62, 264
sedentary societies, 6–7, 8, 15, 62–63
self/ego (nafs), 208, 209
self-annihilation: and Sufism, 203, 206, 209,
211, 212, 213, 214–15
self-flagellation, 180–81, 242
self-mutilation, 217
Sells, Michael, 156
separation of church and state, 258–59, 262
Sepoy Mutiny, 220–28, 255
September 11 (2001), 87, 248, 259, 266
Shaban, Muhammad A., 26, 115–16
Shafii School, 165
Shah (king): first, 187
Shah, Idris, 203
Shaltut, Mahmud, 86
shamanism, 199, 217
Shariah (code of conduct): Abdu’s views
about, 232; categories of behavior in,
162; as core of Islam, 162; and culture,
167; and imja, 164–65, 167; as law in
Saudi Arabia, 257; and Modernists,
227, 239, 240; modernization of, 170,
227; nature and functions of, 162–70;
and Quran, 163, 167–70; and schools
of law, 165–66, 167; and Sufism, 202,
217; and Sunna, 163–64; Traditional-
ists as interpreters of, 144, 164, 165,
166, 169, 170; and Ulama, 162, 164,
165, 166–67, 169; and Wahhabism,
242, 247
Shariati, Ali, 73, 136, 151, 251
Shariatmadari, Ayatollah, 191–92, 252
Sharif, Nawaz, 257
Shaykhs (Sayyids) (tribal leaders): authority
and functions of, 29–30, 31, 64;
Caliphs compared with, 113; death of,
110; harems of, 64; and jihad, 88; and
Law of Retribution, 59; and Muham-
mad as Shaykh, 56, 57–58, 64, 65–66;
and Muhammad’s withdrawal from
Mecca, 48; oath of allegiance to, 30,
Index 307110; of Quraysh, 31–32; requirements
for becoming, 29; and successors to
Muhammad, 118; and Sufism, 199. See
also specific person
Shi‘ah. See Shi‘ites
Shi‘atu Ali, 130, 132, 133, 171, 173, 174,
175, 176, 178. See also Shi‘ites
Shi‘atu Mu‘awiyah, 131–32, 133
Shi‘atu Uthman, 131, 133
Shi‘ites: and Abassid Dynasty, 136–37; and
Ali’s martyrdom, 135–36; and debate
about Caliphate and Ummah, 138–39;
first state of, 188; founding and early
years of, 178–81; and Husayn’s martyr-
dom, 179, 180; and Imams, 181–84;
and Islam as religion of diversity, 263;
as minority sect, 170; and Modernists,
242; and nature and function of
Caliphate, 132; as new religious move-
ment, 179; and Pan-Islamism, 231;
profession of faith of, 182; and prosely-
tizing, 180–81; and Quran, 182–83,
186; and Rationalists, 159; rituals of,
179, 180–81, 184; schools of law for,
166, 184–85; and Shi‘ism as theology
of atonement through sacrifice,
179–80; and successors to Muhammad,
135–36, 137; and Sufism, 199, 200,
215; taqiyyah (political quietism)
among, 187; Ulama of, 184, 187; and
Wahhabism, 244; and Zaydis, 184. See
also Shi‘atu Ali; specific nation
shirk, 151, 154
shura (tribal consultation), 112, 117,
121–22, 123–24, 125, 232
Sikhs, 210
slavery, 32, 40–41, 42
Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, 144
socialism, Islamic, 236–38, 242, 245,
256–57. See also al-Banna, Hasan
Solomon, 64, 117
sorcery, 45–46
Soroush, Abdolkarim, 169, 253, 265–66
sovereignty: and democracy, 265; divine,
190–91; in Iran, 190–91; and Islamic
Reformation, 252, 265; popular,
190–91, 230, 232
Spain, 67, 95, 137
Stillman, Norman, 93
Sudan, 166, 236, 255
Suez Canal, 229, 245
Sufism: in Afghanistan, 260; and al-Banna,
235; characteristics of, 204; eclecticism
of, 199–200; influences on, 199, 200,
215–16, 218; and Islam as religion of