FIELD RESEARCH AND FOCUS GROUP RESEARCH- See Georges and Jones (1980:105–133) and Johnson
(1975:159). Clarke (1975) noted that it is not necessar-
ily “subjectivism” to recognize this in field research. - See Becker and Geer (1970), Spradley (1979a,
1979b), and Schatzman and Strauss (1973) on argot. - For more on recording and organizing data, see Bog-
dan and Taylor (1975:60–73), Hammersley and Atkinson
(1983:144–173), and Kirk and Miller (1986:49–59). - See Schatzman and Strauss (1973:69) on inference.
- See Burgess (1982b), Lofland et al. (2006:99-108),
and Spradley (1979a, 1979b) on notes for field interviews. - See Denzin (1989:87), Lofland et al. (2006: 88),
Schatzman and Strauss (1973:34–36), and Stimson
(1986) on maps in field research. - See Albrecht (1985), Bogdan and Taylor (1975:109),
Denzin (1989:210–233), and Jackson (1987) for more
on taping in field research. - Altheide (1980), Bogdan and Taylor (1975:75–76),
Lofland et al. (2006), Maines et al. (1980), and Road-
burg (1980) discuss leaving the field. - Discussion of field interviewing can be found
in Banaka (1971), Bogdan and Taylor (1975:95–124),
Briggs (1986), Burgess (1982c), Denzin (1989:103–120),
Douglas (1985), Lofland et al. (2006), Spradley (1979a),
and Whyte (1982). - See Fontana and Frey (1994).
- On comparisons with conversations, see Briggs
(1986:11), Spradley (1979a:56–68), and Weiss (1994:8). - See Weiss (1994:78).
- See Atkinson (1998), Denzin (1989:182–209), Nash
and McCurdy (1989), Smith (1994), and Tagg (1985) on
life history interviews. - The types of questions are adapted from Spradley
(1979a, 1979b).
52. Field research informants are discussed by Dean
et al. (1969), Kemp and Ellen (1984), Lofland et al.
(2006: 93-94), Schatzman and Strauss (1973), Spradley
(1979a:46–54), and Whyte (1982).
53. Interview contexts are discussed in Hammersley and
Atkinson (1983:112–126) and in Schatzman and Strauss
(1973:83–87). Briggs (1986) argued that nontraditional
populations and females communicate better in unstruc-
tured interviews.
54. For additional discussion of data quality, see Becker
(1970b), Dean and Whyte (1969), Douglas (1976:7),
Kirk and Miller (1986), and McCall (1969).
55. Douglas (1976:115) argued that it is easier to “lie”
with “hard numbers” than with detailed observations of
natural settings.
56. Adapted from Douglas (1976:56–104).
57. See Bloor (1983) and Douglas (1976:126).
58. For more on validity in field research, see Briggs
(1986:24), Bogdan and Taylor (1975), Douglas (1976),
Emerson (1981:361–363), and Sanjek (1990).
59. See Lofland et al. (2006), Miles and Huberman
(1994:288–297), and Punch (1986).
60. Covert, sensitive study is discussed in Ayella (1993),
Edwards (1993), and Mitchell (1993).
61. See Douglas (1976), Erikson (1970), and Johnson
(1975).
62. See Barnes (1970), Becker (1969), Fichter and Kolb
(1970), Goward (1984a), Lofland et al. (2006), Miles and
Huberman (1994:298–307), and Wolcott (1994) on pub-
lishing field research results.
63. For a discussion of focus groups, see Bischoping and
Dykema (1999), Churchill (1983:179–184), Krueger
(1988), Labaw (1980:54–58), and Morgan (1996).