have increased over the years (Kotulak, 1997). These increases demon-
strate that instead of being fixed and immutable, intelligence is flexible
and subject to great changes, both up and down, depending on the kinds
of stimulation the brain gets from its environment.
Structure of the Intellect
J. P. Guilford and R. Hoeptner (1971) believed that all students have
intelligence, but they defined it in terms of “what kind” instead of “how
much.” Guilford and his associates believed that intelligence consists of
more than 120 thinking abilities that are combinations of operations, con-
tents, and products. Operations include such mental capabilities as com-
prehending, remembering, and analyzing; contents refer to words, forms,
and symbols; and products refer to complexity: single units, groups, and
relationships.
Twenty-six of these factors were found to be relevant to school suc-
cess. Tests were developed to profile students’ abilities, and curriculum
units and instructional strategies were developed to target, exercise, and
enhance each of the 26 intellectual capacities. Guilford believed that
through these interventions, a person’s intelligence could be amplified.
Theory of Cognitive Modifiability
Iconoclast Reuven Feuerstein, working with disadvantaged children
in Israel, challenged the prevailing notion of a fixed intelligence with his
theory of cognitive modifiability. Feuerstein believes that intelligence is
not a fixed entity but a function of experience and mediation by signifi-
cant individuals (parents, teachers, caregivers) in a child’s environment.
This modern theory underlies a fresh view of intelligence as modifi-
able; it contends that intelligence can be taught, that human beings can
continue to enhance their intellectual functioning throughout their life-
times, and that all of us are “gifted” and all of us are “retarded” simulta-
neously (Feuerstein, Rand, Hoffman, & Miller, 1980).
Multiple Forms of Intelligence
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999, 2006) believes that there are many ways
of knowing, learning, and expressing knowledge. Gardner has identified
Changing Perspectives About Intelligence 9