several distinct intelligences that function in problem solving and in the
creation of new products: verbal, logical/mathematical, kinesthetic, musi-
cal, spatial, naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential.
Gardner also believes that these intelligences can be nurtured in all
human beings. Although each individual may have preferred forms, all of
us can, with proper mediation and experience, continue to develop these
capacities throughout our lifetime.
Intelligence as Success in Life
Robert Sternberg (1984) found that “mythological” IQ scores had lit-
tle predictive quality in regard to success in later life. He argues for three
types of intelligence:
- Analytical intelligencein which comparisons, evaluations, and
assessments are made. - Creative intelligenceinvolving imagination, design, and invention.
- Practical intelligencein which use, practicality, and demonstration
are paramount.
Sternberg believes that all human beings have the capacity to continue
growing in these three domains, and he encourages educators to enhance
them all (Sternberg, Torff, & Grigorenko, 1998).
Learnable Intelligence
David Perkins (1995) further supports the theory that intelligence can
be taught and learned. He believes that three important mechanisms
underlie intelligence:
- Neural intelligenceis the “genetically determined, hard-wired orig-
inal equipment” that one has inherited and that determines the speed
and efficiency of one’s brain. Neural intelligence cannot be altered much. - Experiential intelligenceis context-specific knowledge that is accu-
mulated through experience. It means knowing one’s way around the var-
ious settings and contexts in which one functions. A person’s reservoir of
experiential intelligence can be expanded. - Reflective intelligenceis the “good use of the mind; the artful
deployment of our faculties of thinking.” It includes self-managing,
10 Learning and Leading with Habits of Mind