SUMMARY
“In der Beschränking zeigt sich erst der Meister”
(“Less is more”)- von Goethe (1749 ± 1832)^5 -
HISTORICAL-SOCIAL CONTEXT
Today we are living in a knowledge era, characterized by a competitive landscape driven by
globalization, technology, deregulation, and democratization. Many organizations deal with this new
landscape by allying horizontally, across organizational boundaries. As such, the interaction of
organizations with and amidst their environment has become a crucial element for organizational
vitality. Organizational members across all organizational levels are taking advantage of the
competitive opportunities that develop rapidly in the new competitive (external) landscape.
Organizational performance is no longer a solely internal endeavor (focusing on what happens within
the organization) and no longer the mere responsibility of top-level managers. In fact, the interaction
with the environment has become so complex and crucial that a single (or set of) leader(s) at the top of
the organization can no longer singlehandedly steer an organization. These contemporary
circumstances bear consequences for the way leadership is conceptualized and practiced.
RESEARCH CONTEXT
Leadership research is (still) largely embedded in the Industrial paradigm (originating from the
Industrial era), dominated by the tripod ontology of i) the leader, ii) followers, and iii) goals. The
tripod ontology suited the hierarchical structures of organizations and the relatively placid
environments these organizations were operating in during that time period. Despite the mentioning of
the third leg of the tripod, the actual content of goals has remained largely internally oriented. Most
leadership research has focused on the dyadic level, i.e. the impact of the leader on the follower. Little
attention has been paid to the organizational context, i.e. the way the organization interacts with its
environment. Motivating people is still an important aspect of leadership, but given the complex
interaction of organizations with their external environments today, this internal focus is no longer
sufficient for explaining organizational performance. Organizational performance is dependent on
both an internal and external leadership focus.
(^5) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 ± 1832) was a German writer, pictorial artist, biologist, theoretical physicist, and polymath.