The Marketing Book 5th Edition

702 The Marketing Book

social behaviour is illustrated if we examine the
known correlates and predictors of health
behaviour. For example, if we examine the
issue of tobacco smoking, the evidence base
demonstrates that smoking initiation is influ-
enced by many factors, of which some may be
related to the individual (e.g. gender, age,
academic achievements, socio-economic group,
personality factors, ethnicity), social factors
(e.g. peer group or family) and wider, environ-
mental factors (e.g. price of cigarettes, their
availability, media portrayal of smoking,
tobacco marketing and cultural representation
of smoking). Most of these influences are
outside the reach of the individual, and while it
is possible to intervene to prevent smoking or
to encourage cessation, a comprehensive social
marketing strategy should also intervene at
these other levels. These other upstream strate-
gic options may be more cost effective and offer
a more constructive, less victim-blaming,
approach (Hastings et al., 2000).
Therefore, social marketing campaigns need
to address behaviour change at the individual

level, the immediate environment and the wider

social context (see Figure 27.3).

Figure 27.3 shows that social marketing

interventions can influence the desired behav-

iour, either directly (e.g. a smoking prevention

campaign aimed at adolescents) or indirectly

by either challenging social pressures (e.g. a

peer education approach) or by tackling the

wider social context (e.g. banning tobacco

advertising). In each sphere the same principles

of social marketing can be applied. At either the

individual, immediate or wider levels, the

social marketer’s objective is behaviour change,

either of the end consumer or some other key

stakeholder, such as families, community

groups, policy-makers or the media. For exam-

ple, Case 2 shows how social marketing can be

used to encourage local authorities and private

water companies to fluoridate the water supply,

a measure that would have tremendous dental

health benefits.

Finally, social marketers can encourage

independent environmental improvements to

reach their objectives, which involve no

Table 27.1 Types of social change, by time and level of society

Micro level

(individual consumer)

Group level

(group or organization)

Macro level

(society)

Short-term

change

Behaviour change Change in norms

Administrative change

Policy change

Example: Attendance at stop-

smoking clinic

Removal of tobacco

advertising from outside a

school

Banning of all forms of

tobacco marketing

Long-term

change

Lifestyle change Organizational change ‘Socio-cultural evolution’

Example: Smoking cessation Deter retailers from

selling cigarettes to

minors

Eradication of all tobacco-

related disease

Adapted from Levy and Zaltman (1975).