mostly neglected until recently, is the principle of reciprocal exchange (Witzel
1979, 1998, Weber-Brosamer 1988, Malamoud 1989, Wilden 1992, Lopez
1997; denied by Heesterman, 1985: 83): the classical “do ̄ ut de ̄s” is expressed as
“give me, I give you” (dehi me dada ̄mi te, TS 1.8.4.1, VS 3.50, Mylius 1973: 476).
The ritual oblations and the hymns of praise are just oneact in an endless cycle
of exchanges ofanna“food” between the humans and the gods. The term anna
in fact stands for a variety of substances, so that a whole Upanis.ad chapter (TU
3) surprisingly can deal with “food” (Lopez 1997). The concept survives to this
day as “code substance” in actualexchange, especially in village society (Marriot
1976). In Vedic ritual and in modern society it is the code substance “food” that
is given, altered, consumed and partiallyreturned, keeping the path open for
future transactions (Sahlins 1972).
In some detail: the fire god (Agni) carries the offerings to the gods. Fire also
transubstantiatesthe offerings, not simply (Malamoud 1972) by a conversion
from a raw, uncooked state into a palatable, cooked one but also by one from a
mundanesubstance into one with divine characteristics; during this process its
various consistent parts are split up and take new shapes (Va ̄dh. Br. 4.19a =
Caland 1990: 416ff).
As such, “food” travels towards the gods in the form of smoke and aroma
(medha) and is consumed by them. The remains here on earth are a return gift
of the gods who have tasted the food while sitting at the sacred fire, soiled it by
their spittle and rendered it consumable only by their socially inferior relations,
the human beings: this is the remnant (ucchis.t.a), greatly extolled (AV 11.6) as
having enormous potential (Malamoud 1975, Wezler 1978, Lopez 1997). The
gods also give other return gifts to men, e.g. rain, sons, food, long life – the
standard wishes of a Vedic Indian.
Apart from the gods, the ancestors and the ancient sages and poets, the R.s.is,
are part of the system of exchange as well. Offering to all of them is regarded as
delivering oneself from the innate r.n.a“debt, obligation” (cf. Malamoud 1989:
115–36) that is inherent to all men. It is based on the simple fact that human
beings are the somatic descendants of the gods (via the A ̄ditya Vivasvant/
Ma ̄rta ̄n.d.a and his son Manu, the ancestor of mankind). As such, they have to
take care of their direct and ultimate ancestors, just as the present gods (deva)
do of their own ancestors (Aditi myth, MS 1.6.12) by offering food (s ́ra ̄ddha,
pin.d.a) and water to their three direct ancestors and to a vague group of less
immediatepitr.s.
For the brahmins the R.s.is represent both direct somatic and spiritual ances-
tors; these, the poets of the RV, are a dead poets’ society who have actually gained
access to heaven. While both Pitr.s and R.s.is are fed with actual food offerings,
the seers additionally receive their own sort of “code substance” (anna), that is
speech (va ̄c), through the daily recitation by humans of their R.gvedic poetry.
Even today, Vedic recitation is preceded by the actual mentioning of the poet’s
name as to supply him with “spiritual food.” The circle is closed by the release
of “divine” inspiration (dhı ̄) to latter-day poets who want to compose “a new
song” (bráhman), such as a speculative hymn in the AV, a ritual ga ̄tha ̄, or a sorcery
spell (bráhman) all of which make truth work (satyakriya ̄).
78 michael witzel